Utilization of Programmable Logic Controller in World Industry

Utilization of Programmable Logic Controller in World Industry
Today's industrial development, especially the industry in our country, walking very rapidly along with the spread of industrial products, ranging from what is classified as an upstream industry to downstream industries. The complexity of processing raw materials into raw materials, which proceeds either in physics or chemistry, has spurred people to increase and improve the performance of the systems that support these processes, providing a more productive and efficient. One major concern in this case is the use of industrial process control systems (industrial control systems).

In the modern industrial era, industrial process control systems usually refers to the automation control system used. Industrial control systems where the human role is still very dominant (eg in responding to the quantities measured by the process control system with a series of steps the panel settings and switches that are relevant) has been moved and replaced by automatic control systems. The reason is clear reference to the factors that affect the efficiency and productivity of the industry itself, such as human error factor and the level of benefits offered by the control system. One of the control system is very widespread use Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Its application covers a variety of industries ranging from the tobacco industry, automotive, petrochemical, paper, even to the mining industry, for example in gas turbine control and the advanced industrial unit mining results. Ease the transition from the previous control system (eg from relay-based control system mechanical) and ease of trouble-shooting the system configuration are the two main factors driving the popularity of this PLC.

This article gives an overview mecoba summary of the PLC from the standpoint of their constituent devices.
Is Actually PLC's?
NEMA (The National Electrical Manufacturers Association) defines the PLC as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory for internal storage of a set of instructions to implement certain functions, such as logic, sequence, timing, calculation, and arithmetic, to control various types of machinery or processes through the module I / O and digital or analog.

The PLC is able to manipulate the system, execute, and monitor the situation or process on a very fast rate, with the basic data which can be programmed into the microprocessor-based systems integration. The PLC receives input and produces output electrical signals to control a system. Thus the physical quantities and chemical control, before processing by the PLC, will be converted into electrical signals either analog or digital, which is basically data .. Character process itself is controlled by the PLC is a gradual process in nature, namely that the process running order to achieve the expected final state. In other words, the process comprises several subproses, where certain subproses will run after the previous subproses happen. General term used for such a process is inherently sequential process (sequential process). In comparison, the popular control systems in addition to PLC, such as Distributed Control System (DCS), able to handle the processes that are sequential and continuous (continuous process) and the control loop that includes a relatively large.

Counterfeit Penyususnan PLC
PLCs are produced by different companies at the leading control systems usually have their own characteristics that offer the benefits of the system, both in terms of applications (enhancement) and the main module system. However generally every PLC (as your personal computer which tend to standardize and compatible with each other) contains four parts (tools) the following:

The power supply module.

1. CPU module.
2. Software modules.
3. Module I / O.

Power Supply Module (Power Supply: PS)
PS provides a DC voltage to the other PLC module with additional modules in addition to the total current capacity of about 20A to 50A, which is equal to the integral lithium battery (which is used as a backup memory). PS If this fails or the input voltage falls back and forth from the specific value, the memory contents will remain intact. Artificial Triconex PLC, USA, which has even Trisen TS3000 double power supply which means when one of his PS fails, a second PS will automatically take over the system power supply.

CPU Module
CPU module, called the controller or the processor module consists of two parts:

1. Processors
2. Memory

Processor functions:
operate and communicate PLC modules through serial buses or parallel there. Execute the control program

Memory, which works:
Storing digital information that can be changed and the shape of a data table, registers the image, or RLL (Relay Ladder Logic), which is a process control program.

In particular PLC also sometimes we encounter several processors in one module, which is intended to support the reliability of the system. Some processors are working together with a specific procedure to improve control performance. Examples of this type is PLC Trisen TS3000 has three processors with a system called Tripple Modular Redundancy.

The PLC memory capacity is also varied. Trisen TS3000, for example, has a 384 Kbyte memory (SRAM) for program users and 256 Kbyte (EPROM) for its operating system. Siemens Simatic S5 has made 16Kbyte EPROM memory and 8 Kbytes of RAM. PLC FA-3S Series has a total memory of about 16 Kbyte. This memory capacity depends on its use and how far you are as optimize the PLC memory space you have, which means that also depends on how much the location of the control programs necessary to control certain plant. Control program for the drainage of fuel in a gas turbine locations would require more memory than the control programs for mechanical robots move round the car body on the installer automotive industry. An additional memory modules can also be given to the main system memory when the need is increasing.
Module Software Program
PLC recognize various kinds of software, including the State Language, SFC, and even C. The most popular use is RLL (Relay Ladder Logic). All of these programming languages are based on a sequential process that occurs in the plant (controlled system). All the instructions in the program will be executed by the CPU module, and the writing of programs that can be done on the state of on-line or off line. So the PLC can control the program writable when he controlled without disturbing the process control is being done. Execution of the software will not affect the operation I / O is in progress.
Module I / O
Module I / O is an input module and output module in charge of the PLC to manage the relationship of external or peripheral devices that can include a host computer, switches, motor units, and various source signals contained in the plant.

Input module
Input module functions to receive signals from sensors peripheral units, and provides signal settings, termination, isolation, and input signal condition indicator. The signals from peripheral devices will be scanned and it will be communicated through the interface module in the PLC.

Several types of input modules include:

- DC input voltage (110, 220, 14, 24, 48, 15-30V) or current C (4-20mA).
- Voltage AC ((110, 240, 24, 48V) or AC current (4-20mA).
- TTL Input (3-15V).
- Input Analog (12 bit).
- Enter the word (16-bit/paralel).
- Input thermocouple.
- Resistance temperature detector (RTD).
- High current relay.
- Low current relay.
- Input latching (24VDC/110VAC).
- Input isolated (24VDC/85-132VAC).
- Input intelligent (containing microprocessors).
- Input positioning (positioning).
- Enter the PID (proportional, derivative, and integral).
- Pulsa high speed.
- Etc..

Module output
The output module activates a variety of devices such as hydraulic actuators, pneumatic, solenoid, starter motor, and display the status of peripheral points are connected in the system. Other output module functions include conditioning, termination and also isolating the signals exist. Activation process is of course done by sending signals to discrete and analog relevant, based on his own character which is a PLC digital devices. Some common output modules currently include:
- Voltage DC (24, 48, 110V) or DC current (4-20mA
- Voltage AC (110, 240V) or AC current (4-20mA).
- Output analog (12-bit).
- Output word (16-bit/paralel)
- Exodus smart.
- Output ASCII.
- Dual communication port.

With the module on the PLC is working to control a variety of plant that we have. Considering the signals are handled varied and requires the processing of information at once, then the system we have certainly had the support device capable of processing in real time and is multi-tasking,. You imagine that in a power generation unit, for example, the PLC you have to work 24 hours to measure the temperature of waste and speed turbine, and then adjusts the valve opening determines the flow of fuel based on temperature information on waste and speed up., In order to get round a generator, wanted! At the same time the turbine lubrication system and alarm system should work well both under the control of the PLC! An operating system tools and reliable data communications course we should use. Cabling technology, the use of fiber optics-based operating systems and real-time multi-tasking kind of Unix, and adequate facilities for the expansion of computer networks is a common thing in the current installation of the PLC

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Radio transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing

A transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing. If no circuitry is common between transmit and receive functions, the device is a transmitter-receiver. The term originated in the early 1920s. Technically, transceivers must combine a significant amount of the transmitter and receiver handling circuitry. Similar devices include transponders, transverters, and repeaters.

In radio terminology, a transceiver means a unit which contains both a receiver and a transmitter. It was quite common to have these units separated. Ham radio operators can build their own equipment and it is always easier to design and build a simple unit having one of the functions, transmitting or receiving. Almost every modern amateur radio equipment is now a transceiver but there is an active market for pure radio receivers, mainly for Shortwave listening operators. An example of a transceiver would be a walkie-talkie, or a CB radio.

A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.

Generally in communication and information processing, a transmitter is any object (source) which sends information to an observer (receiver). When used in this more general sense, vocal chords may also be considered an example of a transmitter.

In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply, an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF). The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast. Sometimes a device (for example, a cell phone) contains both a transmitter and a radio receiver, with the combined unit referred to as a transceiver. In amateur radio, a transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic gear or a subset of a transceiver, and often referred to using an abbreviated form; "XMTR". In most parts of the world, use of transmitters is strictly controlled by laws since the potential for dangerous interference (for example to emergency communications) is considerable. In consumer electronics, a common device is a Personal FM transmitter, a very low power transmitter generally designed to take a simple audio source like an iPod, CD player, etc. and transmit it a few feet to a standard FM radio receiver. Most personal FM transmitters In the USA fall under Part 15 of the FCC regulations to avoid any user licensing requirements.

In industrial process control, a "transmitter" is any device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal to be received, usually sent via wires, by some display or control device located a distance away. Typically in process control applications the "transmitter" will output an analog 4-20 mA current loop or digital protocol to represent a measured variable within a range. For example, a pressure transmitter might use 4 mA as a representation for 50 psig of pressure and 20 mA as 1000 psig of pressure and any value in between proportionately ranged between 50 and 1000 psig. (A 0-4 mA signal indicates a system error.) Older technology transmitters used pneumatic pressure typically ranged between 3 to 15 psig (20 to 100 kPa) to represent a process variable.

A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally converts through demodulation and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values, navigational positions, etc.

Types of radio receivers

Various types of radio receivers may include:

• Consumer audio and high fidelity audio receivers and AV receivers used by home stereo listeners and audio and home theatre system enthusiasts.
• Communications receivers, used as a component of a radio communication link, characterized by high stability and reliability of performance.
• Simple crystal radio receivers (also known as a crystal set) which operate using the power received from radio waves.
• Satellite television receivers, used to receive television programming from communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
• Specialized-use receivers such as telemetry receivers that allow the remote measurement and reporting of information.
• Measuring receivers (also: measurement receivers) are calibrated laboratory-grade devices that are used to measure the signal strength of broadcasting stations, the electromagnetic interference radiation emitted by electrical products, as well as to calibrate RF attenuators and signal generators.
• Scanners are specialized receivers that can automatically scan two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when they find a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases. They are mainly used for monitoring VHF and UHF radio systems.
  

In telecommunication, the term transponder (short-for Transmitter-responder and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) has the following meanings:

• An automatic device that receives, amplifies, and retransmits a signal on a different frequency (see also broadcast translator).
• An automatic device that transmits a predetermined message in response to a predefined received signal.
• A receiver-transmitter that will generate a reply signal upon proper electronic interrogation.
  

A transverter is a radio frequency device that consists of an upconverter and a downconverter in one unit. Transverters are used in conjunction with transceivers to change the range of frequencies over which the transceiver can communicate.


Radio Data Transmitter - 868MHz
New wireless data transmitter for transferring large amounts of data wirelessly up to 300m. This compact easy to use unit connects directly to most microcontrollers with a standard SPI interface. FSK transmission with a PLL based tuner ensure reliable and accurate data transfer, with data transfer rates of up to 155K bps. Automatic antenna tuning and low power operation make this unit ideal for a wide range of applications.

Features
• Frequency - 868MHz
• FSK Transmission
• PLL Based
• Operating Voltage - 2.2 - 5.4 Vdc
• High Data Rate - Up to 115.2K bps
• Range - Up to 300m
• Works with most Microcontrollers, standard SPI Interface
• Dimensions: Length - 18mm, Width - 14mm , Height - 9mm (Including Pins)

A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater. With digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier. Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio and automatic transmission identification service ATIS. Non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per transponder. This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole transponder, or using landlines to send it to an earth station for multiplexing with other stations.

Remote Communications Outlets (RCO) are remote aviation band radio tranceivers, established to extend to communication capabilities of Flight Information Centres (FIC) and Flight Service Stations (FSS).

Pilots can find RCO frequencies in charts or publications such as the Airport/Facility Directory or Canada Flight Supplement. The RCO is used to make a radio call to the outlet as if the pilot were making the call directly to the FSS or FIC. The outlet will relay the call (and the briefer's response) automatically. RCOs are sometimes confused with RTRs, or remote transmitter/receivers. In fact, the difference between the two is subtle. While RCOs serve flight service stations, RTRs serve terminal air traffic control facilities.

RCOs and RTRs may be UHF or VHF and are divided into a variety of classes determined by the number of transmitters or receivers. Classes A through G are used mainly for air/ ground communications. Class O facilities were created specifically to provide ground-to-ground communication between air traffic controllers and pilots located at satellite airports. The idea was to create a way for pilots to receive en-route clearances or departure authorizations and cancel IFR flight plans. Class O RTRs also were intended to allow pilots flying below the coverage of the primary air/ground frequency to continue to receive advisories from air traffic control. Class O facilities are nonprotected outlets and are subject to prolonged outages which may go undetected and unreported.

Canada also uses a special variant called the Dial-up Remote Communications Outlet (DRCO). DRCOs connect to an FIC or FSS over a phone line, and pilots initiate the connection by keying their microphones in a prescribed pattern.

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STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

In order to create a radio station works well and radiates with a strong beam in accordance with the transmit power is owned radio, a user is required to be able to find out how to install, use and maintenance of all radio station equipment. If we look at many radio stations have communications equipment will suffice but transmit power and reception power is relatively weak because much of the equipment does not work properly and the maximum. Equipment enabled the radio station with an improper way, not only made transmit power and reception power becomes weak but also can make the life of some equipment or components to be brief. Will be discussed here about all the equipment of a communication station in order to help users of communication stations, especially the members of the RAPI, in order to use, using and maintaining all radio station equipment properly. There are several tools that should be understood how it works, at least know a little about the equipment to be able to communicate well and smoothly. Such equipment include: Radio Tranceiver Tranceiver comes from two syllables, namely: Radio Transmitter Transmitter means, and that means Receiver Radio Receiver. Radio Transceiver can be concluded is an aircraft that serves as a Radio Transmitter and Receiver Radio. Between the transmitter with the receiver to work interchangeably. At the time of radiated / transmit we can not monitor / hear because the receiver does not work. And vice versa, at the monitors when we can not radiate because at that time radio transmitter was not working. This is because the frequency transmitter with a receiver is always the same (except frequency Repeatter). That's necessary to talk / transmit in turn to avoid transmitt / useless conversation what if the two stations are both radiating / spoke on the same frequency. If this happens then both stations will not be able to hear / monitor talking, which would result in communications not connect. Transmit power / strength emitted from a radio transceiver depending on Put Out Power (watts) of the transmitter. In this section there are components that are referred to as the Final. The receptivity of each Radio Tranceiver generally gives a chance to have a standard size, although there are some Suit Radio with RF Gain to adjust the power of acceptance, but the maximum would be equal to other radio capabilities. RF Gain is only to reduce the power of acceptance if it is needed, usually this is often used for tracking signals (Huntting Fox) or when receiving disturbed by splatter. Radio Transceiver that is often used in the Base Station / Station Stay termed RIG. RIG plane has an antenna and a separate Power Supply of Radio and require connexion cable between the antenna and power supply to the radio. The voltage required for aircraft RIG is 13.8 volts DC with a +15% tolerance. This current source must be true - do not really notice until the voltage into the aircraft exceeds the provisions of RIG. Besides the installation of the poles + and - not to reverse, although only a few moments can make this rig damaged radio. This current source cable must have a strong measure in accordance with the current (ampere) which will pass through, because if the cable size is too small will make the heat especially in times of need transmit stronger currents, which would have resulted in part of this rig radio transmitter can not work maximum or a transmit power (watts) to be reduced, though did not buzz when transmits. Then that is often overlooked is the wiring at the terminal of this current source on the Power Supply / Battery is often not attached / locked firmly. If the terminal is not locked wire there will be strong due to the occurrence of hot sparks, although not visible because of these sparks may be very small. One more type of radio transceiver that much in use is the type of HT (Handy Transceiver) or Handheld Transceiver. HT is widely used in the field because it can carry because of the current source and the antenna is attached battery together with the radio. While using HT are some things that need to note order to function properly. Usually this is necessary if the communication opponent far enough or are difficult to reach. To keep in mind that the antenna is installed on the HT is the type of antenna Omnidirectional antenna that sends and receives from all directions. Therefore when using this antenna position should be in a position to vertical ground / earth, especially if we do not know where the communication opponent's position. If we know the direction opposite the position of trying to communicate our bodies do not hinder that direction. To find a good position can be based on radio reception that we use, in principle, if the position can receive a fine then that position will also be good to radiate. POWER SUPPLY The power supply voltage source to a radio transceiver can be either dry Batterty (batterry stone), Battery wet (battery) or Power Supply. Battery dry (battery stone) has a voltage 1.5 volts DC, for battery or Battery NiCad rechargeable (cas) has a voltage 1.2 volts DC. Batterywet (batteries) has a voltage of 12 volts DC. Power Supply specifically for that function to change the voltage 220/110 volts AC into DC current-voltage normally from 0 to 15 volts DC, widely used in fixed stations / base station. One of the advantages of this Power Supply Batterry compared with wet (battery) is able to remove the voltage to 13.8 volts DC, while the wet Batterry (battery) 12 Volt DC only. And this voltage source will affect the amount of transmit power (watts) of the Aircraft Transceiver. The higher the voltage of the Power Source, then the greater the transmit power (watts) to be issued by the Aircraft Radio Transceiver, but not exceed the limits maximum.CABLE TRANSMISSION ANTENNA The antenna cable is a transmission line between the Aircraft Radio Transceiver with antenna, which has a double function: for transmission and reception of broadcast transmissions. Very influential once the beam / transmit when using low quality cables. Transmit power issued by the Radio Transceiver will be reduced after going through this cable. Because it u need to use good quality cablenot to affect or reduce the transmit power from the radio transceiver after this cable into the antenna. Prior to this cable is used to do a test to see if the cable has lossis / loss of power if dipergunaka for Radio Tranceiver. This test can be done by using or SWR Power Meter and Dummy Load Meter and the radio transceiver itself. There are several ways to do the test antenna, among others: First of all prepare the Radio Tranceiver with power supply / power supply, connect the Power Meter / SWR Meter to Radio Tranceiver using jumper cables, in part at the SWR meter Conector leading Dummy Load paired antennae. Turn on the Radio Tranceiver they will be at the frequency where the usual approach is used. Transmitt do while watching Power Meter and note how many watts of power that came out during transmit tsb.Kemudian open jumper cables and replace it with a cable that will be used. Before doing transmitt to view transmit power, trim the cable so that no rolling / crossing. After trimming kebel do transmit it as previously said, clayey Power Meter. If the transmit power (watts) issued by the same means had the cable does not have lossis / losses and of course can be used immediately. However, if the transmit power (watts) issued less this means the cable power losses / lossis. To cope with this need to be cutting the cable, the cable was cut along + 2cm then paired trnsmitt back and do as before, looking at changes in transmit power (watts). Repeat several times until the transmit power of the approach as noted earlier. Cable used to KRAP, both 11 meters and 2 meters is a cable that has a 50 ohm inpedance. Lots of antenna type which has a 50 ohm inpedance this, among other things that we often use the RG 58. This type of cable typically has a maximum power transmitter capable of flowing up to 160 watts. RG 8 and type larger, has a maximum power to 800 watts. ANTENNA As transmission antenna cable also has a dual function is to receive and to signals emanating from a radio station. Basically, the antenna comprises 2 (two) types namely: a. That Omnidirectional antenna with radiance and acceptance of, and in all directions. In general, the antenna is mounted vertically to the ground / earth. Serperti: Ring-O/Ground Plane, Slim Jim (duck), Mobile Antenna, Antenna HT standard, etc.. b. Directional, which has a beam antenna and receiving only one direction pad. This antenna can be mounted vertically or horizontally posisis, for 2 yards on umnya fitted with a vertical position and at 11 meters with a horizontal position. A directional antenna / directional consists of: a. Projectors / Driven that serve as an antenna, b. Reflectors which act as reflectors, and c. Director who serves as director. such as: Yagi antenna, antenna Five Zulu, etc.. Rotator An antenna was always directed at the needs on the location of the communication opponent in order to radiate and receive very well. To make it easier for an operator to direct the antenna, you can use an electric motor mounted on the antenna pole and can be controlled from the operator table. Motor / Drive is called the "Rotator". EXTRA MIC In an aircraft equipped with RIG microfon always attached to a spiral cable and connected to the aircraft with a conecto RIG, which is an integral part of a plane Rig. Another case with a radio HT, directly mounted on microfonnya box / HT's own body, because the HT is designed for use in the field. When HT is used in fixed station / base station or mobile stations would be inconvenient to radiate / transmitt, because they have to grasp the HT. To that required a microfon exstra (additional microfon) is known by the term "extra mic". SWR & POWER METER To measure the power loss (losses) that occur on transmission lines and antennas on the antenna itself. In SWR meter there is usually also a function power meter to measure the transmit power of a transmitter. Coax SWITC (SWITC ANTENNA) When using several antennas to one radio transceiver or one antenna with several radio, to be used interchangeably without dismantling the plug connector cable needed to transfer SWITC Coax, better known by the term "Switc antenna". Dummy Load A transmitter / radio transceiver is not burdened with an antenna radiating without due will could damage the amplifier end (final). Therefore, if the will radiate to conduct tests without an antenna, then the "Dummy Load" can be used as a replacement antenna artificial load. GROUND Ground worked best to voltage  against electric shock, and to reduce RFI interference (splatter) and transmit power and strengthen the power of acceptance. During Guglielmo Marconi was regarded as the inventor of radio. When in fact many people play a role in its development. The early 1800s independently Joseph Henry, professor of Pinceton University, and the English physicist Michael Faraday developed the theory of induction. Their experiment proves electromagnetic current in a wire can cause the current in another wire rod, although the two are not related. In 1864 another English physicist James Maxwell Clerik, theorized that an electric current creates a magnetic field and that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was later verified by experiments conducted German physicist Heinrich Hertz, in 1880. Only later Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, managed to send a radio communication signals with electromagnetic waves as far as ± 1.5 km. In 1901, the signal from the Marconi radio devices capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada. But the Canadian-born physicist Reginald A. Fessenden was the first to transmit the human voice via radio when in 1906, he was talking over the radio from Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA, to the ships in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast. Since then, the radio continues to grow more perfect, is supported by findings in stages. In the early twentieth century, scientists have developed a vacuum tube that can track and strengthen the U.S. signal radio. inventor  Forest audion patent trioda or her year 1907, which later became an important element in the radio signal reception. The ability of this revenue improved again with the findings Edwin H. Armstrong, who created the sirukit superheterodyne 1918. Circuit which is still used today has a high capability of Armstrong's selection is also a FM broadcasting system developed in 1933. Radio works by changing the voice or other signals into electromagnetic waves or radio waves. These waves move through air and space, through solid objects. Radio waves move with the size of the speed of light, 299.792 km / sec. When the signal received by the receiver, he immediately changed the original form of sound. Important part in radio was the antenna, tuner, amplifier, and loudspeakers. Antennas to capture radio waves, tuner function for the wave with the figures given frequency. While amplifier strengthens the signal of the selected programs tuner. On the radio, a transistor amplifier and IC (Integrated Circuit). While the radio from the year before that use vacuum tabeung. Last estuary is a speaker that will change the electrical signals into the original sound. Although the pilot was first broadcast done in 1910, the actual raido broadcasts in many countries began only in 1920. When TV ruled the world, many people think, live radio age counting days. It turned out that the technology allows the production of portable radios - even just for the match - a practical portable. Another attraction, not just an interactive quiz program that directly involves the audience, as well as the quality the better modulation with the FM broadcast to broadcast the music so popular. Boster FM Radio Receiver Here is a simple circuit of an FM booster that can be used to listen to programs from distant FM stations Clearly. This amplifier will pull in all distant FM stations Clearly. The circuit is configured as a common-emitter tuned RF pre-amplifier wired around VHF / UHF transistor Q1. 2SC2570. (Only C2570 is annotated on the transistor body.) Assemble the circuit on a good-quality PCB (preferably, glass-epoxy). Adjust the input / output trimmers (VC1/VC2) for maximum gain. All capacitors are ceramic and 50V is the standard but the 25V types work fine too. Trimmer capacitors TR1 and TR2 (22pF) are adjusted for maximum gain. Input coil L1 consists of 4 turns of enamelled copper wire 20SWG over a 5mm diameter former. It is tapped at the first turn from the ground lead side. Coil L2 is similar to L1, but has only three turns. Pin configuration is shown in the diagram. Component List: R1 = 27K R2 = 270 ohms R3 = 1K TR1, TR2 = 22pF, Trimmer cap (15-40pF) C1, C2 = 5.6pF C3 = 0.001uF (1nF), ceramic C4, C5 = 10pF, ceramic C6 = 0.1uF (100nF), ceramic Q1 = 2SC2498, 2SC2570, 2N5179, SK9139, or NTE10. NPN VHF / UHF transistor L1 = 4 turns of 20SWG magnet wire, 5mm diameter. (so-called 3T +1) L2 = 3 turns of 20SWG magnet wire, 5mm diameter.

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SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line

SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line. This is an item of radio equipment used to check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line.

The VSWR meter should be connected in the line as close as possible to the antenna. This is because all practical transmission lines have a certain amount of loss, causing the reflected power to be attenuated as it travels back along the cable, and producing an artificially low VSWR reading on the meter. If the meter is installed close to the antenna, then this problem is minimized.

Referring to the above diagram, the transmitter (TX) and antenna (ANT) terminals are connected via an internal transmission line. This main line is electromagnetically coupled to two smaller sense lines which are connected to resistors at one end, and diode rectifiers at the other. The resistors are chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the sense lines. One sense line senses the forward wave (connected to FWD), and the other the reflected wave (connected to REV). The diodes convert these to FWD and REV DC voltages respectively, the ratio of which is used to determine the VSWR. In a passive meter, this is indicated on a non-linear meter scale.

To calculate the VSWR, first calculate the reflection coefficient:


Note that an SWR meter does not measure the actual impedance of a load (ie the resistance and reactance), but only the mismatch ratio. To measure the actual impedance, an antenna analyzer or other similar RF measuring device is required. Note also that for accurate readings, the SWR meter must be matched to the line impedance, ie 50 or 75 ohms as applicable. To accommodate both impedances, some SWR meters have switches on the rear, to select the appropriate load resistance for the sense lines.

If a mismatch exists between the transmission line and load, the line will act as an impedance transformer. In this case, the impedance seen at the input to the line will depend on its electrical length, although (for a lossless line) the VSWR will be the same at any point along the line. Mismatched transmission lines are often used for impedance transformation, especially at UHF and microwave frequencies where their dimensions can be very short. For more information on this handy technique, see smith chart.

When not actually measuring VSWR, it is best to remove the more usual type of passive SWR meter from the line. This is because the internal diodes of such meters can generate harmonics when transmitting, and intermodulation products when receiving. Because active SWR meters do not usually suffer from this effect, they can normally be left in without causing such problems.

In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a partial standing wave at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node (minimum), in an electrical transmission line.

The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes a maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2 times greater than the minimum standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR.

Practical implications of SWR

The most common case for measuring and examining SWR is when installing and tuning transmitting antennas. When a transmitter is connected to an antenna by a feed line, the impedance of the antenna and feed line must match exactly for maximum energy transfer from the feed line to the antenna to be possible. The impedance of the antenna varies based on many factors including: the antenna's natural resonance at the frequency being transmitted, the antenna's height above the ground, and the size of the conductors used to construct the antenna.

When an antenna and feedline do not have matching impedances, some of the electrical energy cannot be transferred from the feedline to the antenna. Energy not transferred to the antenna is reflected back towards the transmitter. It is the interaction of these reflected waves with forward waves which causes standing wave patterns. Reflected power has three main implications in radio transmitters: Radio Frequency (RF) energy losses increase, distortion on transmitter due to reflected power from load and damage to the transmitter can occur.

Matching the impedance of the antenna to the impedance of the feed line is typically done using an antenna tuner. The tuner can be installed between the transmitter and the feed line, or between the feed line and the antenna. Both installation methods will allow the transmitter to operate at a low SWR, however if the tuner is installed at the transmitter, the feed line between the tuner and the antenna will still operate with a high SWR, causing additional RF energy to be lost through the feedline.

Many amateur radio operators believe any impedance mismatch is a serious matter. However, this is not the case. Assuming the mismatch is within the operating limits of the transmitter, the radio operator needs only be concerned with the power loss in the transmission line. Power loss will increase as the SWR increases, however the increases are often less than many radio amateurs might assume. For example, a dipole antenna tuned to operate at 3.75MHz—the center of the 80 meter amateur radio band—will exhibit an SWR of about 6:1 at the edges of the band. However, if the antenna is fed with 250 feet of RG-8A coax, the loss due to standing waves is only 2.2dB. Feed line loss typically increases with frequency, so VHF and above antennas must be matched closely to the feedline. The same 6:1 mismatch to 250 feet of RG-8A coax would incur 10.8dB of loss at 146MHz.

A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power transmission. Types of transmission line include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, striplines, optical fibers, electric power lines, and waveguides.

READ MORE - SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

In order to create a radio station works well and radiates with a strong beam in accordance with the transmit power is owned radio, a user is required to be able to find out how to install, use and maintenance of all radio station equipment.

If we look at many radio stations have communications equipment will suffice but transmit power and reception power is relatively weak because much of the equipment does not work properly and the maximum.

Equipment enabled the radio station with an improper way, not only made transmit power and reception power becomes weak but also can make the life of some equipment or components to be brief.

Will be discussed here about all the equipment of a communication station in order to help users of communication stations, especially the members of the RAPI, in order to use, using and maintaining all radio station equipment properly.

There are several tools that should be understood how it works, at least know a little about the equipment to be able to communicate well and smoothly. Such equipment include:

Radio Tranceiver
Tranceiver comes from two syllables, namely: Radio Transmitter Tranmitter means, and that means Receiver Radio Receiver. Radio Transceiver can be concluded is an aircraft that serves as a Radio Transmitter and Receiver Radio.

Between the transmitter with the receiver to work interchangeably. At the time of radiated / transmit we can not monitor / hear because the receiver does not work. And vice versa, at the monitors when we can not radiate because at that time radio transmitter was not working. This is because the frequency transmitter with a receiver is always the same (except frequency Repeatter). That's necessary to talk / transmit in turn to avoid transmitt / useless conversation what if the two stations are both radiating / berbicarapada the same frequency. If this happens then both stations will not be able to hear / monitor talking, which would result in communications not connect.

Transmit power / strength emitted from a radio transceiver depending on Put Out Power (watts) of the transmitter. In this section there are components that are referred to as the Final.

The receptivity of each Radio Tranceiver generally gives a chance to have a standard size, although there are some Stelan Radio with RF Gain to adjust the power of acceptance, but the maximum would be equal to other radio capabilities. RF Gain is only to reduce the power of acceptance if it is needed, usually this is often used for tracking signals (Huntting Fox) or when receiving disturbed by splatter.

Radio Transceiver that is often used in the Base Station / Station Stay termed RIG. RIG plane has an antenna and a separate Power Supply of Radio and require penghungan cable between the antenna and power supply to the radio. The voltage required for aircraft RIG is 13.8 volts DC with a +15% tolerance. This current source must be true - do not really notice until the voltage into the aircraft exceeds the provisions of RIG. Besides the installation of the poles + and - not to reverse, although only a few moments can make this rig damaged radio. This current source cable must have a strong measure in accordance with the current (ampere) which will pass through, because if the cable size is too small will make the heat especially in times of need transmit stronger currents, which would have resulted in part of this rig radio transmitter can not work maximum or a transmit power (watts) to be reduced, though did not buzz when transmits.

Then that is often overlooked is the wiring at the terminal of this current source on the Power Supply / Battery is often not attached / locked firmly. If the terminal is not locked wire there will be strong due to the occurrence of hot sparks, although not visible because of these sparks may be very small.

One more type of radio transceiver that much in use is the type of HT (Handy Transceiver) or Handheld Transceiver. HT is widely used in the field because it can carry because of the current source and the antenna is attached batterry together with the radio. While using HT are some things that need to diperhatikah order to function properly. Usually this is necessary if the communication opponent far enough or are difficult to reach. To keep in mind that the antenna is installed on the HT is the type of antenna Omnidirectional antenna that sends and receives from all directions. Therefore when using this antenna position should be in a position to vetikal ground / earth, especially if we do not know where the communication opponent's position. If we know the direction opposite the position of trying to communicate our bodies do not hinder that direction. To find a good position can be based on radio reception that we use, in principle, if the position can receive a fine then that position will also be good to radiate.

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply voltage source to a radio transceiver can be either dry Batterty (batterry stone), Batterry wet (battery) or Power Supply.

Batterry dry (batterry stone) has a voltage 1.5 volts DC, for batterrry or Batterrry NiCad rechargeable (cas) has a voltage 1.2 volts DC. Batterry wet (batteries) has a voltage of 12 volts DC.

Power Supply specifically for that function to change the voltage 220/110 volts AC into DC current-voltage normally from 0 to 15 volts DC, widely used in fixed stations / base station. One of the advantages of this Power Supply Batterry compared with wet (battery) is able to remove the voltage to 13.8 volts DC, while the wet Batterry (battery) 12 Volt DC only. And this voltage source will affect the amount of transmit power (watts) of the Aircraft Transceiver. The higher the voltage of the Power Source, then the greater the transmit power (watts) to be issued by the Aircraft Radio Transceiver, but not exceed the limits maksimium.

CABLE TRANSMISSION ANTENNA
The antenna cable is a transmission line between the Aircraft Radio Transceiver with antenna, which has a double function: for transmission and reception of broadcast transmissions. Very influential once the beam / transmit when using low quality cables. Transmit power issued by the Radio Transceiver will be reduced after going through this cable. Because it u need to use good quality kebel not to affect or reduce the transmit power from the radio transceiver after this cable into the antenna.

Prior to this cable is used to do a test to see if the cable has lossis / loss of power if dipergunaka for Radio Tranceiver. This test can be done by using or SWR Power Meter and Dummy Load Meter and the radio transceiver itself.

There are several ways to do the test antenna, among others:
First of all prepare the Radio Tranceiver with power supply / power supply, connect the Power Meter / SWR Meter to Radio Tranceiver using jumper cables, in part at the SWR meter Conector leading Dummy Load paired antennae. Turn on the Radio Tranceiver they will be at the frequency where the usual approach is used. Transmitt do while watching Power Meter and note how many watts of power that came out during transmit tsb.Kemudian open jumper cables and replace it with a cable that will be used. Before doing transmitt to view transmit power, trim the cable so that no rolling / crossing. After trimming kebel do transmit it as previously said, clayey Power Meter. If the transmit power (watts) issued by the same means had the cable does not have lossis / losses and of course can be used immediately. However, if the transmit power (watts) issued less this means the cable power losses / lossis. To cope with this need to be cutting the cable, the cable was cut along + 2cm then paired trnsmitt back and do as before, looking at changes in transmit power (watts). Repeat several times until the transmit power of the approach as noted earlier.

Cable used to KRAP, both 11 meters and 2 meters is a cable that has a 50 ohm inpedance. Lots of antenna type which has a 50 ohm inpedance this, among other things that we often use the RG 58. This type of cable typically has a maximum power transmitter capable of flowing up to 160 watts. RG 8 and type larger, has a maximum power to 800 watts.

ANTENNA
As transmission antenna cable also has a dual function is to receive and to signals emanating from a radio station.
Basically, the antenna comprises 2 (two) types namely:

a. Omnidirectional
That antenna is a radiance and acceptance of, and in all directions.
In general, the antenna is mounted vertically to the ground / earth.
Like : Ring-O/Ground Plane, Slim Jim (duck), Mobile Antenna, Antenna HT standard,
etc..

b. Directional
Antenna which has beam and receiving only one direction pad.
This antenna can be mounted vertically or horizontally, to 2 meters in
umnya fitted with a vertical position and at 11 meters with a horizontal position.

A directional antenna / directional consists of:
a. Projectors / Driven that serve as an antenna,
b. Reflectors which act as reflectors, and
c. Director who serves as director.
such as: Yagi antenna, antenna Five Zulu, etc..
ba c --------------------------- --------------------- -------
Rotator

An antenna was always directed at the needs on the location of the communication opponent in order to radiate and receive very well. To make it easier for an operator to direct the antenna, you can use an electric motor mounted on the antenna pole and can be controlled from the operator table. Motor / Drive is called the "Rotator".

EXTRA MIC
In an aircraft equipped with RIG microfon always attached to a spiral cable and connected to the aircraft with a conecto RIG, which is an integral part of a plane Rig. Another case with a radio HT, directly mounted on microfonnya box / HT's own body, because the HT is designed for use in the field. When HT is used in fixed station / base station or mobile stations would be inconvenient to radiate / transmitt, because they have to grasp the HT. To that required a microfon exstra (additional microfon) is known by the term "extra mic".

SWR & POWER METER
To measure the power loss (losses) that occur on transmission lines and antennas on the antenna itself. In SWR meter there is usually also a function power meter to measure the transmit power of a transmitter.

Coax SWITC (SWITC ANTENNA)
When using several antennas to one radio transceiver or a fruit
antennas with a few fruit Radio, to be used interchangeably without dismantling the plug connector cable needed to transfer SWITC Coax, better known by the term "Switc antenna".

Dummy Load
A transmitter / radio transceiver is not burdened with an antenna radiating without due will
could damage the amplifier end (final). Therefore, if the will radiate to conduct tests without an antenna, then the "Dummy Load" can be used as a replacement antenna artificial load.

GROUND
Ground worked best to voltage security against electric shock, and to reduce RFI interference (splatter) and transmit power and strengthen the power of acceptance.

During Guglielmo Marconi was regarded as the inventor of radio. When in fact many people play a role in its development. The early 1800s independently Joseph Henry, professor of Pinceton University, and the English physicist Michael Faraday developed the theory of induction. Their experiment proves electromagnetic current in a wire can cause the current in another wire rod, although the two are not related. In 1864 another English physicist James Maxwell Clerik, theorized that an electric current creates a magnetic field and that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was later verified by experiments conducted German physicist Heinrich Hertz, in 1880.

Only later Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, managed to send a radio communication signals with electromagnetic waves as far as ± 1.5 km. In 1901, the signal from the Marconi radio devices capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada.

But the Canadian-born physicist Reginald A. Fessenden was the first to transmit the human voice via radio when in 1906, he was talking over the radio from Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA, to the ships in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast. Since then, the radio continues to grow more perfect, is supported by findings in stages.

In the early twentieth century, scientists have developed a vacuum tube that can track and strengthen the U.S. signal radio.Penemu Lee De Forest audion patent trioda or her year 1907, which later became an important element in the radio signal reception. The ability of this revenue improved again with the findings Edwin H. Armstrong, who created the circuit superheterodyne 1918. Circuit which is still used today has a high capability of Armstrong's selection is also a FM broadcasting system developed in 1933.

Radio works by changing the voice or other signals into electromagnetic waves or radio waves. These waves move through air and space, through solid objects. Radio waves move with the size of the speed of light, 299.792 km / sec. When the signal received by the receiver, he immediately changed the original form of sound.

Important part in radio was the antenna, tuner, amplifier, and loudspeakers. Antennas to capture radio waves, tuner function for the wave with the figures given frequency. While amplifier strengthens the signal of the selected programs tuner. On the radio, a transistor amplifier and IC (Integrated Circuit). While the radio from the year before that use vacuum tabeung. Last estuary is a speaker that will change the electrical signals into the original sound.
Although the pilot was first broadcast done in 1910, the actual radio broadcasts in many countries began only in 1920. When TV ruled the world, many people think, live radio age counting days. It turned out that the technology allows the production of portable radios - even just for the match - a practical portable. Another attraction, not just an interactive quiz program that directly involves the audience, as well as the quality the better modulation with the FM broadcast to broadcast the music so popular.

READ MORE - STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM