microcontroller AT89C51

Is the output of Atmel AT89C51 microcontroller with 4K bytes Flash PEROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory). AT89C51 have the system re-programming Flash memory with write endurance of 1000 times the erase. This memory is used to store standard command MCS51 microcontroller allowing it to work in single chip operation mode (single-chip operation) which does not require external memory (external memory) to store the source code. Here is a picture foot structure and block diagram of microcontroller AT89C51

Figure 1: The name Pin-pin AT89C51 If we see a block diagram of this microcontroller, it was apparent perfection of the facilities it provides. Figure 2 is a block diagram of the IC

Figure 2: Block diagram of IC AT89C51 In the figure above shows that there are 4 output ports to input data, and is also available accumulator, registers, RAM, stack pointer, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), lock (latch) and a series of oscillations that make 89C51 can operate only with 1-chip IC. This microcontroller AT89C51 Pin has 32 I / O ports are divided into 4 port 8-lane I / O. Here is an explanation of each IC pin microcontroller AT89C51: 1) Pin 1 to 8 (Port 1) Port 1 is Port I / O bi-directional which is equipped with an internal pullup. Port 1 output buffers are able to provide / absorb the current four TTL inputs. The legs Port 1 will be pulled high by internal pullup so that it can be used as input. As an input, if the legs of Port 1 is connected to ground (pull low), then each leg will provide in-stream since pulled high internally. Port 1 also receives the lower address (low byte) for charging the program and verify flash (Agfianto Eko Putra, 2004: 90). 2) Pin 9 (RST) Reset will be active by providing input high for 2 cycles. 3) Pin 10 to 17 (Port 3) Port 3 is I / O ports with dual-direction has an internal pullup. Port output buffer 3 is able to provide / absorb the current four TTL inputs. The legs of Port 3 will be in the pulled high by internal pullup so that it can be used as input. As an input, if the legs of Port 3 is connected to ground (in the low-pull), then each leg will provide in-stream since pulled high internally. Table 1. Special Functions The legs are 3 feet Port Port P3.0 Alternate Functions RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3 .4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) WR P3.6 (write to external data memory) P3.7 RD (read from external data memory) 4) Pin 18 (XTAL 2) Pin This is the oscillator output. 5) Pin 19 (XTAL 1) This pin is the oscillator input. 6) Pin 20 (GND) is connected to Ground. 7) Pin 21 to 28 (port 2) Port 2 is the port I / O bi-directional equipped with an internal pullup. Port 2 output buffers are able to provide / absorb the current four TTL inputs. The legs Port 2 will be in the pulled high by internal pullup so that it can be used as input. As an input, if the legs of Port 2 is connected to ground (in the low-pull), then each leg will provide in-stream since pulled high internally. Port 2 will provide the high-byte address (high byte) for taking instructions from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit command with the address (example: MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, if you want to send a "1", then used an internal pullup is provided. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit command with the address (example: MOVX @ R1), Port 2 will send the contents of the Shift Register Function Port 2. Port 2 also receives the address high during programming and verification (Agfianto Eko Putra, 2004: 90). 8) Pin 29 (PSEN) Program Store Enable (PSEN) is a pin that functions at the time of executing the program located in external memory. PSEN is active twice per cycle. 9) Pin 30 (ALE) pin can serve as Address Latch Enable is to latch the low byte address when accessing external memory. ALE will be active when accessing external memory. 10) Pin 31 (EA) In conditions of low, this pin will function as an External Access Enable (EA), ie, the microcontroller will run existing programs on an external memory after a system reset. If conditioned high, this pin will function to run existing programs on internal memory. 11) Pin 32 to 39 (Port 0) Port 0 is port output / input (I / 0)-type open-drain bidirectional. As an output port, each leg can absorb the current eight TTL inputs. Port 0 can be used as inputs impedansi high. Port 0 also can be configured as a bus address / data, the low (low byte) during the process of accessing the data memory and external programs. When used in this mode Port 0 has internal pullup but weak. Port 0 also receives the code sent to him during the filling process and remove the program code during program verification process that has been stored in a flash. In this case external pullup required during program verification process Pin 40 (Vcc) is connected to Vcc (+5 Volts).

READ MORE - microcontroller AT89C51

Stepper motors

Stepper motors convert electrical pulses supplied to the rotor discrete movements called steps (steps). Value rating of a given stepper motor right in steps per revolution (steps per revolution). Stepper motors generally have speed and [torque] is low. Stepper motor works based pulses given to the phase windings in proper sequence. In addition, the pulses must also provide a large enough current in the coil phase. Therefore, for the operation of the stepper motor must first design a dilute sequ rationing logic to determine the sequence of phase winding motor and then using a driver (drivers) to provide the current needed by the winding phase. The following elements determine the characteristics of a stepper motor: 1. voltage. Stepper motor usually has a given voltage nominal.
1. Stress sometimes exceed the nominal voltage to obtain the required torque, but can cause overheating and shorten the motor age.
2. Barriers. Other characteristics are resistance-per-winding. These obstacles will determine the current drawn by the motor, and also had a torque curve and maximum operating speed affect the motor.
3. Degrees per step (step angle). This factor determines how many degrees the shaft will rotate for each full step (full step). Operating half-step (half step) will double the number of steps-per-revolution, and reduce the degree-per-stride. Degrees-per-step is often referred to as resolution.


A PPE ste r motor (or motor steps) are brushless, synchronous electric motor that can be made for a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position cans be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. The position of the motor can be controlled accurately without the feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), during motor carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (the which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and Generally are closed-loop commutated.) Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motor (a stepping motor with a very large number of poles is reduced, and general closed-loop commutated.) Basic - Basic Operations -> Stepper motors operate differently from the DC brush motors, the which rotate Pls Their voltage is applied to terminals. Stepper motors operate differently from the DC brush motor, which rotates when a voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets Arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a tooth-shaped piece of iron center. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, Such as a microcontroller. The electromagnetic energy is through an external control circuit, such as microcontrollers. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, the which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. To make the turn the motor shaft, the first one electromagnet is given power, which makes gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnets tooth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, They Are Slightly offset from the next electromagnet. When the gear teeth is thus in line with the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. Pls So the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates Slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. So when the next electromagnet is activated and the first turned off, the gear rotates slightly to match the next, and from there the process is repeated. EACH of those slight rotations is Called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. Each little rotation is called "step", with an integer number of steps to make a full rotation. In that way, the motor cans be turned by a precise angle. That way, the motor can be changed with the right angle. Characteristics of Stepper Motors: Stepper motors are constant power devices. As motor speed increases, torque decreases. Along with the increase in motor speed, torque is reduced. (Most motors exhibit maximum torque Pls stationary, however the torque of a motor stationary Pls 'holding torque' defines the ability of the motor to maintain a desired position while under external load). (Motor that most shows maximum torque when stationary, but the torque of the motor when the 'holding torque' ability to define a stationary bike to maintain the desired position while under an external load). The torque curve May be extended by using current limiting drivers and Increasing the driving voltage (Sometimes Referred to as a 'chopper' circuit; there are installments of chips off the shelf drivers capable of doing this in a simple manner.) Torque curve can be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a series of 'helicopter', there are some off the shelf chip drivers are able to do this is simple). Steppers exhibit more vibration motors Than other types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another (Called a detent). Steppers show more vibration than other motor types, as a discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another (called detent a). The vibration makes stepper motors, DC motors Than noisier. vibrations that create noise stepper motor compared with DC motors. This changed from very bad vibration at cans Some cans speeds and cause the motor to lose torque or lose direction. This vibration can become very bad at some speed and can cause loss of motor torque or losing direction. This is Because the rotor is being held in a magnetic field is the which behaves like a spring. This is because the rotor is being held in the magnetic field behaves like a spring. On EACH step the rotor overshoots and bounces back and forth, "ringing" at its resonant frequency. At each step the rotor overshoot and bounce back and forth, "ring" at its resonance frequency. If the stepping frequency matches the resonant frequency increases then the ringing and the motor comes out of synchronism, resulting in positional error or a change in direction. If a stepped frequency matches the resonant frequency of the number of rings and motor out of synchronism, resulting in an error change of position or direction. At worst there is' a total loss of control and holding torque so the motor is Easily overcome by the load and spins Almost Freely. At worst there is total loss of control and torque hold so easily overcome by the motor load and rotate almost freely. The effect cans be mitigated by Accelerating Quickly speeds through the problems of range, physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a micro-stepping driver. The effect can be reduced by accelerating quickly through the various problems of speed, physical damping (damping friction) systems, or using micro-stepping driver. Motors with a Greater number of phases exhibit smoother operation Than Also those with fewer phases (cans Also this be achieved through the use of a micro stepping drives. Motors with greater number also shows the smooth phase operation compared with fewer stages (this is also can be achieved through the use of micro-stepping drive).

READ MORE - Stepper motors

component consists of a comparator and a flip-flop

If asked what the most popular electronic components and versatile, the answer is a timer IC 555. IC timer of this type are well known and still popular to this day decades ago. Precisely IC 555 was first made by Signetics Corporation in 1971. 555 timer IC provides a practical and relatively inexpensive solution for various electronic applications with regard to timing (timing). Especially two of the most popular application is a series of timer monostable and astable oscillator. Offal main component consists of a comparator and a flip-flop is realized with a lot of transistors.

From the past until now, the working principle component of this type does not change but each manufacturer makes the IC design and different technology. Almost all manufacturers make this type of component, although with different names. For example, National Semiconductor LM555 call it, Philips and Texas Instruments named SE/NE555. Motorola / ON-Semi designed with CMOS transistors are small enough so that komsusi powernya and named MC1455. Philips and Maxim make its CMOS version with the name of the ICM7555. Although the name is different, but the function and pin compatible with each other diagram with one another (functional and pin-to-pin compatible). It's just that there are several different specific characteristics such as power consumption, maximum frequency and so forth. More detailed specifications are usually listed on each manufacturer's datasheet. Number first, the casing is made with 8-pin T package (tabular from tin-like transistors), but is now more common with 8 pin DIP IC packaging. IC monostable circuit is designed in such a way that only requires a few external components to work. Among the main external resistors and capacitors (external). This IC is working with utilizing the principle of charging (charging) and discharging (discharging) of the capacitor through the external resistor. To explain the principle works, consider the diagram of IC 555 image with external resistors and capacitors below. This circuit is nothing but a timer circuit (timer) monostable. The principle of this circuit will produce a single pulse with a certain time on output pin 3, where pin 2 of this component is triggered. Notice in the IC, there are two comparators that Comp A and Comp B. Note also in the IC have 3 internal resistor R which are the same size. With such a composition series of VCC and GND, an internal resistor circuit is a voltage divider. This arrangement provides a reference voltage, each of magnitude 2 / 3 VCC at the comparator negative input of A and 1 / 3 VCC at the comparator positive input B.
in the absence of input, output pin 3 is 0 (ground or normally low). The transistor Q1 is in the IC is always ON and prevent external capacitor C of the process pengisisian (charging). When there is a trigger signal from 1 to 0 (VCC to GND) which is fed to pins 2 and less than 1 / 3 VCC, then necessarily the comparator B sets the output flip-flop. This in turn triggers the transistor Q1 becomes OFF. If the transistor Q1 OFF will pave the way for an external resistor R to start charging a capacitor C (charging). At the same time the output from pin 3 to high (VCC), and kept high until a certain time as desired. Call it the length is t seconds, the time needed to charge the capacitor C voltage reaches 2 / 3 VCC. C voltage is connected to pin 6 which is the positive input A. comp So if the voltage is 2 / 3 VCC is reached, the comparator A will to reset flip-flop and not necessarily the internal transistor Q1 becomes ON again. At the same time the output pin 3 of IC 555 is returned to 0 (GND). How long pulses generated very depending on the value resitor and attach an external capacitor. From the formula exponentially charging capacitor is known that: Vt = VCC (1 - et / RC) ... .. (1) Vt is the voltage at time t. If t is the exponential time required to fill the capacitor until Vt = 2 / 3 VCC, then the formula (1) can be substituted with this value: 2 / 3 = 1-et/RC 1 / 3 = et / RC ln (1 / 3) = -t/RC and so on can be obtained t = (1.0986123) RC are rounded to t = 1.1 RC This is the formula for counting the length of a single pulse output can be generated by monostable circuit of the IC 555. Few Astable circuit berdeda with monostable circuit, astable circuit is made by changing the composition resitor and capacitors outside the IC 555 as shown below. There are two resistors Ra and Rb as well as an external capacitor C is required. The principle is made to trigger astable circuit itself over and over again so that this circuit can produce oscillations in the output signal. When the power supply circuit in turn, began to fill the capacitor C through resistor Ra and Rb until the voltage reaches 2 / 3 VCC. At this voltage is reached, it is understandable comparator A of the IC 555 began working to reset flip-flop and beyond to make the transistor Q1 ON. When transisor ON, resitor Rb as a short-circuited to ground thus removing the load capacitor C (discharging) through the resistor Rb. At this time the output pin 3 to 0 (GND). When discharging, the voltage on pin 2 continue to fall until it reaches 1 / 3 VCC. When this voltage is reached, can be understood comparator B's turn to work and re-trigger the transistor Q1 becomes OFF. This causes the output pin 3 back into high (VCC). So forth repeatedly so that the output oscillation signal formed pin3. Seen here a trigger signal (trigger) the two comparators are worked alternately on the voltage between 1 / 3 VCC and 2 / 3 VCC. This is the limit to find the pulse width and period of oscillation is generated. For example it is assumed t1 is the time that the capacitor charging process in the content via resistors Ra and Rb than 1 / 3 VCC to 2 / 3 VCC. Assumed also is the time t2 the capacitor discharging through a resistor Rb from voltage 2 / 3 VCC to be 1 / 3 VCC. With the exponential calculation with the restriction 1 / 3 VCC and 2 / 3 VCC, it can be derived: t1 = ln (2) (Ra + Rb) C = 0693 (Ra + Rb) C and t2 = ln (2) RBC = 0693

Oscillator period is to be known by calculating T = t1 + t2. Percentage duty cycle of the oscillation signal generated was calculated from the formula t1 / T. So if the desired duty cycle oscillator for (near) 50%, it can be used resistor Ra is relatively much smaller than the resistor Rb. Closing One thing that is interesting from the components of IC 555, both timer monostable circuit applications as well as the frequency of oscillation of the astable circuit is independent of how the value of working voltage VCC is given. Working voltage IC 555 can vary between 5 to 15 VDC. The accuracy of the time (timing) generated depends on the value and tolerance of the external resistors and capacitors are used. For time series that are categorized as critical, typically used precision capacitors and resistors with a small tolerance. In many application notes, is usually also added a 10 nF capacitor on pin 5 to ground to ensure stability of the voltage reference 2 / 3 VCC. Many other applications can be made * with IC 555, one of the other popular applications is a series of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation). PWM circuit easily realized by slightly altering thefunction the monostable timer circuit . Namely by triggering the trigger pin (pin 2) is continuous, in accordance with the desired clock period, while the pulse width can be adjusted to provide variable voltage to control voltage pin (pin5). In the market many are also encountered two timers 555 are packed within a single IC such as IC LM556 or MC1456.

READ MORE - component consists of a comparator and a flip-flop

Architectural Drawing

An architectural drawing or architect's drawing is a technical drawing of a building (or building project) that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of the merits of a design, to enable a building contractor to construct it, as a record of the completed work, and to make a record of a building that already exists.

Architectural drawings are drawn according to a set of conventions, which include particular views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and any copies required had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently.

The development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings, making manual draughting almost obsolete, and opening up new possibilities of form using organic shapes and complex geometry. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software.

READ MORE - Architectural Drawing

The types of capacitors

The types of capacitors
Multilayer Ceramic Capacitor

Raw material for the capacitor is equal to the type of ceramic capacitors, there is difference in the number of layers that make up the dielectric. In this type of dielectric is prepared with many layers or commonly referred to as the layer with thickness of 10 to 20 μm and the plate electrode is made of pure metal. In addition, small size and have a better temperature characteristic than ceramic capacitors. Usually this kind either used to pass high frequencies to the ground.

Polyester Film Capacitor

These capacitors have a higher tolerance value of the polyester film capacitor. In general, the capacitance of this component will not change if they are designed in a system where the frequency through which less than or equal to 100KHz. In addition to the picture shown polypropylene of capacitor tolerance ± 1%.

Polypropylene Capacitor

These capacitors have a higher tolerance value of the polyester film capacitor. In general, the capacitance of this component will not change if they are designed in a system where the frequency through which less than or equal to 100KHz. In the figure shown alongside polypropylene capacitors with a tolerance of ± 1%.

Mica Capacitors
This type uses mica as dielectric materials. Mica capacitors have a good degree of stability, because the low temperature coefficient. Because of its characteristic frequency is very good, usually capacitors are used for circuit resonance, filters for high frequency and high voltage circuit using for example: a radio transmitter that uses a tube transistor. Mica capacitors do not have a high capacitance value.

Polystyrene Film Capacitor
This type can not be used for applications that use high frequencies, because the same construction as the electrolytic capacitors such as coil. The capacitor is good for applications that use timer and filter frequency of several hundred KHz. This component has 2 colors for the electrodes, which are: red and gray - gray. For the red electrode is made of copper while the color - gray is made from aluminum foil.

Electric Double Capacitor (Super Capacitor)
This type of capacitor dielectric material similar to electrolytic capacitors. But the difference is greater than the size of capacitors electrolytic capacitors which have been described above. Usually has a unit of F. Image of the physical form can be seen on the side, the image has a size 0.47F capacitors. These capacitors are typically used for circuit power supply.

Trimmer capasitor

Capacitors of this type using a ceramic or plastic as the dielectric material. The value of the capacitor can be changed - change by turning screws located thereon. In the playback is expected to use a special screwdriver, so as not to cause the effect of capacitance between a screwdriver by hand.

Tuning Capacitor
These capacitors country of Japan referred to as "Varicons", usually used as a voter so many waves on the radio. Using air dielectric type. Capacitance value can be changed by rotating the handle located on the capacitor body to right or left.

READ MORE - The types of capacitors

ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

Some of the many electronic components that have been created by the existence of more advanced technology

Electronic components are usually a means of supporting objects that become part of an electronic circuit that can work according to their utility. Starting from the stick directly on the circuit board in the form of PCBs, CCB, or Veroboard Protoboard way or not attached directly soldered on the circuit board (with other interfaces, such as cable).

These electronic components consisting of one or more electronic materials, which consist of one or several elements of the material and put together, heated, attached and so will produce an effect that can result in temperature or heat, capture or vibrate the material, changing the current, voltage, power electricity. list content
[Hide]
1 Mixing ingredients
2 Space Technology
3 List of electronic components
4 See also


Mixing ingredients

For the better, these electronic materials should also be getting a perfection in the processing or mixing. But there are some electronic materials that when mixed with terbaur not perfect, because it caused the two materials have different compounds or materials.

While scientists know that if these materials can be mixed or combined with the better it will produce electronic materials new, more accurate, better and smaller in size to meet the characteristics of electronic components for more sophisticated future. For example, with a mixture of a little fellow basic materials, has been able to work and have a better ability than the previous components. So the basic ingredients can be combined continuously between a single material with other material but still refers to a smaller size as desired electronic scientists in this century.

Space Technology

But to mix the basic ingredients in electronics was better in order to produce more sophisticated components that his ability is very difficult, this is what becomes a challenge to scientists and chemical physicists today. Scientists know that the gravitational force is one factor of the barrier material, atoms or molecules to coalesce. So the scientists in this modern era began looking into the sky and glanced at the space shuttle.

Finally, the space age began, today's electronics technology have required the shuttle. With the same aircraft to deliver its astronauts to the space station other than that there they can work more freely. With the state of weightlessness or without gravity it turns out electronic materials more easily to be mixed with a more perfect outcome. Today many materials found in electronics that when there is no gravity in space can be mixed with better and more easily, unlike at the time on earth. After the mixed ingredients are then brought back to earth to then be processed.

So with the advance of technology development from year to year and even from day to day, the electronic components are also becoming more sophisticated than the previous artificial and still pursue an increasingly small size in terms of its physical form as well and started to spread also to the nano technology (nano technology )

List of electronic components

In line with technological advances that the electronic components will also be more and more diverse types ranging from the physical form, derived types and characteristics.

ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS
This next diagram depicts active components, the difference between active and passive is that active components require a power source to work, whereas passive components do not. The top symbols represent vacuum tube or thermionic devices. Although at one time, these were being replaced by the smaller transistor and integrated circuits, they are finding their way back into electronics for use in professional audio equipment and some radio receivers.

READ MORE - ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

LOGIC GATE

LOGIC GATE

- An expression is true if it fits with reality and is false if it does not fit. Bi-state logic assumes that every expression is true or false.
- Boolean function expressed by AND, OR, NOT easily implemented with digital logic gates.
An expression is true if it fits with reality and is false if it does not fit. Bi-state logic assumes that every expression is true or false.
- Each variable in the boolean algebra has one of two values​​: true or false. à the boolean algebra is the algebra of dual-status or binary.
- Boolean function expressed by AND, OR, NOT easily implemented with digital logic gates.

KEY FACTORS IN THE FORMATION OF GATE
1. Ease of formation of the gate with a physical component.
2. Economic consideration is the fabrication of a physical component.
3. Possible expansion of the gate with more than two input.
4. Basic properties of binary operators such as comutatif and associative.
5. Gate the ability to implement Boolean functions or conjunction with other gates gate.

BASIC LOGIC GATE
1. AND gate
AND gate has two or more input signals.

1.a.Gerbang AND bubbly
- Figure (a) shows the AND gate with input inversi, image (b) AND gate bubbly; bubble as our memories will occur on the face inversion AND operation.
2. OR gate
- OR gate has two or more input signals.
2.a. Gate OR bubbly
- The series of (a) have been used by people at large, so the logic symbol stands for the image (b), image (b) as a bubbly OR gate.


3. Inverter
- Inverter is a gate with only one input, the output always has the opposite of the status of the input status.
THEIR LOGIC GATE
- In addition to basic gates AND, OR and NOT, there is still another instance of logic gates, namely NAND, NOR, XOR (Exclussive OR) and XNOR who was sent down from the three basic gates.
- The four gates at the top is a combination of basic gates such as NOR gates were prepared by a combination of OR and NOT gates.
- In addition, by using De Morgan's law, we can create an equivalent logic gates with NOR and NAND gate above

READ MORE - LOGIC GATE