electron gun

An electron gun (also called electron emitter) is an electrical component that produces an electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy and is most often used in televisions and monitors which use cathode ray tube technology, as well as in other instruments, such as electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Electron guns may be classified in several ways:

* by the type of electric field generation (DC or RF),
* by emission mechanism (thermionic, photocathode, cold emission, plasma source),
* by focusing (pure electrostatic or with magnetic fields), or
* by the number of electrodes.

Cathode rays (also called an electron beam or e-beam) are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes, i.e. evacuated glass tubes that are equipped with at least two metal electrodes to which a voltage is applied, a cathode or negative electrode and an anode or positive electrode. Electrons were first discovered as the constituents of cathode rays. In 1897 British physicist J. J. Thomson showed the rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the electron. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) create the image in a classic television set.

The electron is a subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge. It has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle.

A particle accelerator is a device that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams. An ordinary CRT television set is a simple form of accelerator. There are two basic types: electrostatic and oscillating field.

In the early 20th century, cyclotrons were commonly referred to as atom smashers.
An electron microscope is a type of microscope that produces an electronically-magnified image of a specimen for detailed observation. The electron microscope (EM) uses a particle beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen and create a magnified image of it. The microscope has a greater resolving power than a light-powered optical microscope, because it uses electrons that have wavelengths about 100,000 times shorter than visible light (photons), and can achieve magnifications of up to 1,000,000x, whereas light microscopes are limited to 2000x magnification.

The electron microscope uses electrostatic and electromagnetic "lenses" to control the electron beam and focus it to form an image. These lenses are analogous to, but different from the glass lenses of an optical microscope that form a magnified image by focusing light on or through the specimen.

Electron microscopes are used to observe a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals. Industrially, the electron microscope is primarily used for quality control and failure analysis in semiconductor device fabrication.

In the view above, one can see the electron gun. The piece of waveguide feeding the gun has a window that seperates the high vacuum side from the rest of the waveguide that is presurized with Sulfur Hexaflouride. electron gun to shoot at each particle position phosfor on a shadow mask, shadow mask is a layer that filters out files that mistakes can be shot from dihindarkan.Berbagai color distortion can be generated by varying the intensity of each beam of electrons.

After leaving the Electron Gun, the electron beam travels through the Alpha Magnet which selects electrons with similar energies. One is able to see both the electron gun as well as the beginning of the Linac in this photo.

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Electrical problem became one of the many issues discussed today

Electrical problem became one of the many issues discussed today. Occurrence of power blackouts in rotation, rising subscription prices of electricity, and efforts to seek new sources of electricity is a central issue became the center of attention many parties. However, the fundamental problem of electricity as the management issues covered by the recent warm up, as mentioned above. It's no secret that companies that manage the electricity is always a loss. Through this paper, the author invites all parties to return attention to this fundamental problem. Tire Overview As an opening to discuss the power management problem, let us review the general structure of the electricity management. In electrical systems there are at least three general functions or subsystems, ie subsystems generation, transmission, and distribution. Each of these subsystems has characteristics and functions of different but mutually related. Next will be discussed each of these subsystems. Generation subsystem has a function to produce (make) or generate electricity. This subsystem is basically a plant that produces electricity but because electricity is not an object that can be seen then produce more precise term is expressed by generating electricity. Electricity can be generated from a variety of ways, using water is called hydroelectric power (hydroelectric), using water vapor called steam power plant (steam power), and others. Generation subsystem is usually located in places where electricity is generated. Hydropower is located in the dam or reservoir, power plant located near the source of producing geothermal steam, and so on. Electricity generated can not be stored or used to be accommodated, but must be directly channeled to the place where the electricity would be used. Thus, there is no storage of electricity or electric storage tank. This is one of the electrical characteristics in terms of production. Because electricity can not be stored, then it must continue to electricity supplied from the subsystem to the electricity generation would be used. This is where the role of the transmission subsystem. This subsystem serves electricity to places where electricity is used. Besides electricity generation places that are usually much needed way for electricity to flow to another place. So, we often see the electrical cables to form high voltage power lines that stretch from one place to another, that is classified as a transmission subsystem. Before electricity came to the user, high voltage power lines that are drawn from the power subsystem needs to be divided into several users. Subsystem that runs this function is called the distribution subsystem. At this stage of electricity divided by a certain voltage to a number of users, both domestic users and industrial users. We often see electric sentry sentry-spread in some places, this is where electricity is distributed. At the ticket booth, ticket booth have the transformer that serves to raise or lower the voltage to the appropriate voltage. We also often hear a power cut in a region associated with the incident in a bus shelter, because this bus shelter is in electrical distribution centers in the area. The process of calculating the cost of electricity used by the user, losses due to theft of electricity, and all sorts of problems directly related to electricity users included in the distribution subsystem. The management of electrical systems in Indonesia, which includes three functions as described above performed by a single operator and a state-owned enterprises (SOEs), the PLN. Thus the general and concise explanation of an electrical system. Here is discussed how the electricity generated in hydroelectric power away from the city center streamed and used by people in the city center. Evaluation of Existing Tire From the explanation of the electrical system on and compare with existing electrical systems currently managed by PLN, I think there are things that require attention. 1. Have managers take into account the amount of electrical system electricity generated in the generation subsystem, and then flows through the transmission subsystems, to the distribution subsystem, and last until the user directly? Is there a number of electricity wasted in the whole process? if we look at electricity as a product that will sell the loss of electricity means losing a number of products. This means that there is a price that does not sell products, and could mean loss. An integrated electrical system is good, of course, will reduce the amount of this loss by calculating the amount of electricity generated and how much is used and paid for by the user or consumer. 2. We know different types of power generation. Hydropower uses water, steam power plant using steam from geothermal sources, and so on. Each electricity source available, or run with a different cost. What are the differences of each generation systems do not affect the difference in the value of electricity sold to consumers? Should not consumers who use electricity from hydropower is different from consumers who use electricity from the power plant? Or, if in a region to use electricity from hydroelectric power, why should they be affected by fuel price increases that are used in other plants? From the standpoint of justice, it certainly looks very unfair. Electricity costs should apply locally appropriate plants that run in the region concerned. 3. How to calculate and manage the electricity distribution? In view of the business, which sold electricity and paid by the user in accordance with the electricity received from the generation and transmission subsystems. Indeed there are a number of electricity lost during transmission is usually already taken into account when designing transmission subsystems, but the amount of electricity lost due to the design of the guardhouse, unauthorized use or theft of electricity should have taken into account as well. Have it done by the electricity system manager? From the standpoint of effectiveness and profit, the problems above can be used as the basis for evaluating the management performance of electrical current. The above of course only a small portion of the existing problems, but from here we can analyze the existing system to find a solution that can be filed. Alternative Tire From a number of issues above, required a step forward in the management of electricity that can restore the effectiveness and power management company profits. From the above explanation, it appears that the problem lies in the management of electrical power distribution and management of electricity distribution of funds. So far the management of electrical systems including subsystems generation, transmission, and distribution done by a government institution, the PLN. In this case PLN power plant building and its maintenance (maintenance), building a transmission system and its maintenance, and perform electrical service to the user as the party face to face with consumers. For reasons of effectiveness and profit, the authors propose an alternative electricity system in the management of electrical separation. Here the electricity system is divided into two separate systems in the management of each function independently. Generation and transmission systems are on one side with a separate management and on the other side of the distribution system with a separate management too. In this electrical systems, the generation and transmission of electricity produced and sold to other parties, namely the distribution system. Distribution system to buy electricity from generators and transmission systems for electricity sold to the user as a consumer. Here, both generation and transmission systems and distribution systems to run their business as a business institution is trying to grab profits. As a business institution which aims to generate profits, each person buying or selling. Thus, both generation and transmission systems and distribution systems should not expect losses on each side. This makes all parties to carry out their business functions and effectively to achieve business benefit. Electrical system through the management separation between generation and transmission systems to distribution systems is an alternative in the management of electrical systems. This alternative system is a proposal in order to improve the effectiveness, efficiency, and profit gains expected from a management of an electrical system. Electricity is the nature of things that arise from the existence of electric charge. Electricity, can also be interpreted as follows: * Electricity is the condition of certain subatomic particles, like electrons and protons, which led to the withdrawal and rejection of force. * Electricity is a source of energy that is channeled through wires. Electric current caused by electric charge flows from the positive channel to channel negative. Together with magnetism, electricity form the fundamental interaction known as electromagnetism. Electricity allows many physical phenomena that are well known, such as lightning, electric fields and electric currents. Electricity widely used in industrial applications such as electronics and electric power. Electrical properties Electricity gives rise to the natural 4 base styles, and its remains in the body that can be measured. In this case, the phrase "the amount of electricity" is used also with the phrase "electric charge" and also "the amount of charge". There are 2 types of electric charge: positive and negative. Through experiments, similar charges repel-and-opposite sex charges attract each other. Magnitude of this interesting and refused Coulomb established by law. Some effects of electrical phenomena discussed in electricity and electromagnetism. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb, which has an abbreviation "C". The symbol Q is used in the equation to represent the quantity of electricity or charge. For example, "Q = 0.5 C" means "the quantity of electric charge is 0.5 coulomb". If electricity flows through a special material, such as those of tungsten and tungsten, incandescent light will be emitted by the metal. Such materials were used in a light bulb (or bulb bulblamp). Every time electricity flows through a material that has resistance, then the heat will be released. The greater the electrical current, then the resulting heat will be doubled. This property is used in the element iron and electric stove. Friends with electricity Electricity flows from positive to channel the negative channel. With direct current electricity if we hold only positive cable (but do not hold the negative cables), electricity will not flow into our bodies (we do not get a shock). Similarly, if we just hold a negative channel. With an electric alternating current, electricity can also flow into the earth (or floor). This is caused by the electricity system that uses the earth as a neutral reference voltage (ground). This reference, which is usually in pairs at two places (one on the ground in an electric pole and one on ground at home). Therefore, if we hold the power supply and our feet tread the earth or our hands touch the wall, the voltage difference between electrical cables in hand with the tension in the leg (ground), making electricity flowing from hand to foot so that we will experience an electric shock ( "shock affected "). Electricity can be stored, for example in a battery or batteries. Small utility, for example, stored in batteries, will not stun effect on the body. In a large car battery, there is usually a small stun effect, though not too big and dangerous. Electricity flows from the positive pole of battery / battery to the negative pole. Electrical systems that go into our house, if you use 1 phase electrical system, usually consisting of 3 wires: * The first phase is the cable that is a source of alternating electricity (positive and negative qalabah through continuous). This cable is the cable that carries the voltage from power plants (eg PLN) this cable is usually called the hot wire (hot), can be compared as the positive pole in direct current electrical system (although the physics are not right). * Second is the neutral wire. This cable is basically a zero voltage reference cable, which is usually connected to ground at the power station (in PLN's office for example) can be compared as the negative pole in direct current electrical system, so if the electricity to flow into the lamp, for example, then one leg lamp cable must be connected to the light phase and the other leg connected to the neutral wire, if held, the neutral wire is usually not cause a dangerous shock effect, but due to possible differences between the reference zero voltage at the office of PLN with zero reference at our location, there is a possibility the holders feel the electric shock. In storm events electric space (space electrical storm) that large, it is possible the current will flow from ground reference to the reference one another ground far away. This natural phenomenon can trigger the occurrence of large-scale die lamp. * Third is the ground wire or ground. This cable is the zero reference at the user location, which is usually connected to ground at the home user; this cable actually comes from the metal which is planted in the ground near our house; cable is a security cable that is usually connected to the body (chassis) electric equipment home to ensure that the user devices will not experience an electric shock. Although in theory, zero reference at home (this ground wire) must be equal to zero reference at the office of PLN (neutral wire), ground wires should not be used to carry electrical current (eg from a cable to connect the light phase to ground wires). Such reckless actions only invites danger because of chassis electrical devices in the home may be a high voltage and will cause an electric shock for another user. Make sure your electrician install ground wires in the electrical system at home. This installer is important, because it is absolutely necessary for your safety from electrical shock hazards that could be fatal, and also some electrical equipment that is sensitive will not work properly if there is an electric induction appeared in chassis (eg due to Eddy currents effects). Electrical charge, Q, is the basic charge measurement of an object owned. Unit Q is the coulomb, which is 6:24 x 10 rank 18 basic charge. Q is the nature of the material owned by either the form of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative charge). Total electric charge of an atom or the material can be positive, if the atom electron deficient. While the excess atoms will be negatively charged electrons. The amount of charge depends on the excess or shortage of electrons is, therefore, the material charge / atom is a multiple of the basic Q unit. In a neutral atom, the number of protons will be equal to the number of electrons surrounding it (to form a neutral net charge or not charge). Coulomb, denoted by C, is the SI unit for electric charge, and defined the ampere: 1 coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second. 1 coulomb is 6:24 × 10 power 18 times the charge of electrons. SI units SI base unit 7 is as follows (followed by the symbol and the dimension formula): * Meters for length (m, L) * Kilogram for mass (kg, M) * Second for the time (s, T) * Ampere for electric current (A, I) * Kelvin for temperature (k, T) * Mol for the number of molecules (moles, n) * Kandela to light intensity (cd, J) Two dimensionless SI units are radian (rad) and steradian (sr). Other units in the SI can be described as a combination of basic units above. Example: * Units of force / newton is a kg · m/s2. * Units of speed is meters / second (m / s) * Units of area is m 2 In physics, the ampere is denoted by A, is the SI unit for electric current. One ampere is an electric current flows, so that in between the two straight conductor of infinite length, with negligible cross-section, and placed apart a distance of one meter in a vacuum, producing a force of 2 × 10 rank -7 newtons per meter. Electric current is the amount of electric charge that flows per unit time. Electric charge can flow through wires or other electrical conductor. I = ((Q) \ over (t)) In the old days, conventional current flow is defined as the positive charge, although we now know that an electric current is generated from the flow of negatively charged electrons into the opposite direction. The SI unit of electric current is ampere (A). Conductor in electronics engineering is a substance that can conduct electrical current, either in the form of solid, liquid or gas. Because it is conductive, it is called a conductor. A good conductor is to have custody of the child. In general, metals are conductive. Gold, silver, copper, aluminum, zinc, iron, respectively have a greater resistance type. So as a conductor of gold is very good, but because it is very expensive, it is economically copper and aluminum the most widely used. Heat conduction or thermal conduction is spreading heat transfer without the intermediary of the substance. This spread typically occurs in solids. Conduction occurs from the high-temperature object to a low-temperature objects. High temperature objects will release heat, while the low temperature substance will receive heat, until thermal equilibrium is reached. Heat spreading is described by the following mathematical formula: T = C + (T0 - C) e rank kt T is the temperature, T0 initial temperature, t time, C and k are constants. Electrometer is a measure of electric charge or electrical potential difference. Electrometer types vary, ranging from hand-made electronic devices to high-precision. Modern Electrometer based on vacuum tube technology or solid phase (solid state) can be used to measure electrical current is very small to 1 femtoamper. Elektroskop is a tool more simple kind, which works on similar principles, but merely indicates the relative amount of voltage or electric charge. Galvanometer is a strong measure very weak currents. Works the same way with Amperemeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. The third tool works the same way with electric motors, but because it has the spring, the coil is not rotating. Is a tool / tools to measure the voltage of electricity in an electrical circuit. This instrument consists of three copper plates mounted on a Bakelite which are arranged in a glass or plastic tube. Outer plate acts as anode while the middle one as the cathode. Generally these tubes measuring 15 x 10cm (height x diameter). Electric voltage (sometimes referred to as voltage) is the electrical potential difference between two points in an electric circuit, and is expressed in units of volts. This scale measures the potential energy of an electric field causing the flow of electricity in an electrical conductor. Depending on the electrical potential difference, an electrical voltage can be considered as extra low, low, high or extra high. Potential energy is energy generated by the relative position or configuration of objects in a physical system. Forms of energy has the potential to change the state of other objects in the vicinity, for example, the configuration or motion. A simple example of this energy is if someone brings a stone up a hill and put it in there, the stone will have gravitational potential energy. If we stretch a rubber band, we can say that the rubber band to get the elastic potential energy. Various types of energy can be classified as potential energy. Every form of energy is associated with a particular type of force that works against a particular physical properties of matter (such as mass, charge, elasticity, temperature, etc.). Gravitational potential energy associated with the gravitational force acting on the mass of the object; elastic potential energy of elastic forces (electromagnetic force) are working against the elasticity of the object that changed shape; electrical potential energy by coulomb force; strong nuclear force or weak to work on an electrical charge on object; chemical potential energy, the chemical potential of an atomic or molecular configuration of the particular working towards an atomic or molecular structure of chemicals that make up the object; thermal potential energy with the electromagnetic force is related to the temperature of the object. Electric field is the effect caused by the presence of electric charges, such as electrons, ions, or protons, in a room nearby. Electric field has units of N / C or read newton / coulomb. Electric field is generally studied in physics and related fields. Indirectly electronics have used electric field in the wire conductor (cable). Newton is the SI derived units with the symbol N, which is a unit of force, named after Sir Isaac Newton. One newton is the amount of force needed to create a body of mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second per second. Definition 1 N = 1 kg.m.s rank-2 Vectors in mathematics and physics is an object geometry that has magnitude and direction. Vectors when drawn is denoted by an arrow (?). Large vector arrows is proportional to the length and direction coincides with the direction of the arrow. Can represent the displacement vector from point A to B. Vectors are often characterized as \ overrightarrow (AB). Vector plays an important role in physics: the position, velocity and acceleration of the moving object and the force described as a vector. Vector length To find the length of a vector in euklidian three-dimensional space, can use the following ways: vector display images. The similarity of two vectors Two vectors say if they have the same length and same direction. Alignment of two vectors Two Fruit Vectors are parallel (parallel) if the line that represents the two vectors are parallel. Scalar A vector can be multiplied by a scalar that will produce a vector, too, is the result vector: scalar images. Additions vector images and vector reduction Unit vector Unit vector is a vector of length 1 unit length. Unit vector of a vector can be searched by: Unit vector images. In classical mechanics, momentum (denoted by p) is defined as the product of mass and velocity, resulting in the vector. The formula used to calculate the value of the momentum of the object: \ mathbf (P) = m \ mathbf (v) \, \! or P = M.V Where P is momentum, m is the mass of the object, and v is the velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity. The momentum of a particle can be regarded as a measure of difficulty for the silent object. For example, a heavy truck has a greater momentum than the lighter cars are moving with the same speed. Greater the force required to stop the truck than a car light in a certain time. (The quantity mv is sometimes expressed as the linear momentum of the particle to distinguish it from the angular momentum). In the physical sciences, style or kakas is anything that can cause a body of mass is accelerating. Has a great style and direction, making it a vector quantity. The SI unit used to measure the force is the Newton (denoted by N). Based on Newton's second law, a body with constant mass will be accelerated is proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. drawing style. Another explanation is similar, the net force acting on a body is proportional to the rate of change of momentum is going through. momentum picture is going through. Style is not something essential in the physical sciences, although there is a tendency to introduce the concepts of physics through this. Even more basic is the momentum, energy and pressure. Actually, no one can measure the force directly. However, if something says one measure of style, a little thought would make a person realize that what is actually measured is the pressure (or perhaps its slope). "Style" that you feel when you touch your skin, for example, is actually the nerve cells that receive your pressure changes in pressure. Spring balance to measure the size of the spring tension, which actually is the pressure, etc.. In everyday language associated with the drive force or traction, may be deployed by our muscles. In physics, we need a more precise definition. We define the style here in relation to the acceleration experienced by a given standard object when placed in suitable environments. As we use the standard objects (or seems to imagine that we use it!) Platinum cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris and is called the standard kilogram. In physics, force is the action or the agent that causes the body mass to move forward. This may be experienced as a force, push or pull. Acceleration of the object is proportional to the vector sum of all forces acting on it (known as the net force or resultant force). In the extended object, the force may also cause rotation, deformation or increase pressure on the body. The effect of rotation is determined by the torque, while deformation and pressure is determined by the stress created by the force. Mathematically net force equal to the rate of change of momentum of the body where the force acts. Because momentum is a vector quantity (magnitude and direction), the force is also a vector quantity. The concept of style has formed part of the statics and dynamics since ancient times. Ancient Contributions of statics culminated in the work of Archimedes in the third century BCE, which still form part of modern physics. In contrast, the dynamics of a misunderstanding of Aristotle combined the role of intuition are ultimately corrected style in the 17th century, culminating in the work of Isaac Newton. According to the development of quantum mechanics, is now understood that particles influence each other with each other through the fundamental interactions, making force as a useful concept only in a macroscopic concept. Only four known fundamental interactions: strong, electromagnetic, weak (combined into one elektrolemah interaction in the 1970s), and gravity (in order of decreasing interaction strength). Aristotle and his followers believed that the natural state of objects on earth did not move and that the objects tend to the situation that if left alone. Aristotle distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find the "natural place" they (eg, heavy objects fall), which led to "natural motion", and no natural or forced motion, which requires continuous application of force. But this theory, although based on the everyday experience of how objects move (eg, horses and carts), have an irritating problem for the calculation of the projectile, such as flight arrows. Several theories have been discussed for centuries, and the idea of mid-end of that object in motion have brought an innate thrust is to influence the work of Galileo. Galileo conducted an experiment in which stones and shells both rolled on a steepness to prove the opposite of Aristotle's theory of motion in the early 17th century. Galileo showed that objects accelerated by the gravity of which no independent mass and argued that objects retain their velocity if they are not influenced by the style - usually friction. Isaac Newton was known as a contender explicitly for the first time, that in general, a constant force causes constant rate of change (time derivative) of the momentum. In essence, he gave the first mathematical definition and only mathematical definition of the quantity of the force itself - as a time derivative of momentum: F = dp / dt. In 1784 Charles Coulomb discovered the inverse square law of interaction between the electric charge using a torsional balance, which is the second fundamental forces. Strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force is found in the 20th century. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, we realize that the "style" is a concept that comes from excessive conservation of momentum (momentum in relativity and 4 momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). Thus, today known fundamental forces are more accurately called "fundamental interactions". Hollywood Types Although there are clearly many types of forces in the universe, they are all based on the four fundamental forces. Strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force acts only at very short distances and are responsible for "binding" a particular nucleon and nuclear up. Electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and gravitational forces acting between the masses. Pauli exception principle responsible for the tendency of atoms to not "overlap" with each other, and is become responsible for "stiffness" of matter, but it also depends on the electromagnetic force that binds the contents of each atom. All the other styles based on the fourth of this style. For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and Pauli exception principle, which does not allow the atoms to break through each other. The forces in springs modeled by Hooke's law is also the result of electromagnetic force and Pauli exception principle acting together to return the object to the position of balance. Centrifugal force is the force of acceleration that comes simply from the acceleration of the rotation frame of reference. Modern quantum mechanical view of the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) is that particles of matter (fermions) do not directly interact with each other but rather to exchange virtual particles (bosons).

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Utilization of Programmable Logic Controller in World Industry

Utilization of Programmable Logic Controller in World Industry
Today's industrial development, especially the industry in our country, walking very rapidly along with the spread of industrial products, ranging from what is classified as an upstream industry to downstream industries. The complexity of processing raw materials into raw materials, which proceeds either in physics or chemistry, has spurred people to increase and improve the performance of the systems that support these processes, providing a more productive and efficient. One major concern in this case is the use of industrial process control systems (industrial control systems).

In the modern industrial era, industrial process control systems usually refers to the automation control system used. Industrial control systems where the human role is still very dominant (eg in responding to the quantities measured by the process control system with a series of steps the panel settings and switches that are relevant) has been moved and replaced by automatic control systems. The reason is clear reference to the factors that affect the efficiency and productivity of the industry itself, such as human error factor and the level of benefits offered by the control system. One of the control system is very widespread use Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Its application covers a variety of industries ranging from the tobacco industry, automotive, petrochemical, paper, even to the mining industry, for example in gas turbine control and the advanced industrial unit mining results. Ease the transition from the previous control system (eg from relay-based control system mechanical) and ease of trouble-shooting the system configuration are the two main factors driving the popularity of this PLC.

This article gives an overview mecoba summary of the PLC from the standpoint of their constituent devices.
Is Actually PLC's?
NEMA (The National Electrical Manufacturers Association) defines the PLC as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory for internal storage of a set of instructions to implement certain functions, such as logic, sequence, timing, calculation, and arithmetic, to control various types of machinery or processes through the module I / O and digital or analog.

The PLC is able to manipulate the system, execute, and monitor the situation or process on a very fast rate, with the basic data which can be programmed into the microprocessor-based systems integration. The PLC receives input and produces output electrical signals to control a system. Thus the physical quantities and chemical control, before processing by the PLC, will be converted into electrical signals either analog or digital, which is basically data .. Character process itself is controlled by the PLC is a gradual process in nature, namely that the process running order to achieve the expected final state. In other words, the process comprises several subproses, where certain subproses will run after the previous subproses happen. General term used for such a process is inherently sequential process (sequential process). In comparison, the popular control systems in addition to PLC, such as Distributed Control System (DCS), able to handle the processes that are sequential and continuous (continuous process) and the control loop that includes a relatively large.

Counterfeit Penyususnan PLC
PLCs are produced by different companies at the leading control systems usually have their own characteristics that offer the benefits of the system, both in terms of applications (enhancement) and the main module system. However generally every PLC (as your personal computer which tend to standardize and compatible with each other) contains four parts (tools) the following:

The power supply module.

1. CPU module.
2. Software modules.
3. Module I / O.

Power Supply Module (Power Supply: PS)
PS provides a DC voltage to the other PLC module with additional modules in addition to the total current capacity of about 20A to 50A, which is equal to the integral lithium battery (which is used as a backup memory). PS If this fails or the input voltage falls back and forth from the specific value, the memory contents will remain intact. Artificial Triconex PLC, USA, which has even Trisen TS3000 double power supply which means when one of his PS fails, a second PS will automatically take over the system power supply.

CPU Module
CPU module, called the controller or the processor module consists of two parts:

1. Processors
2. Memory

Processor functions:
operate and communicate PLC modules through serial buses or parallel there. Execute the control program

Memory, which works:
Storing digital information that can be changed and the shape of a data table, registers the image, or RLL (Relay Ladder Logic), which is a process control program.

In particular PLC also sometimes we encounter several processors in one module, which is intended to support the reliability of the system. Some processors are working together with a specific procedure to improve control performance. Examples of this type is PLC Trisen TS3000 has three processors with a system called Tripple Modular Redundancy.

The PLC memory capacity is also varied. Trisen TS3000, for example, has a 384 Kbyte memory (SRAM) for program users and 256 Kbyte (EPROM) for its operating system. Siemens Simatic S5 has made 16Kbyte EPROM memory and 8 Kbytes of RAM. PLC FA-3S Series has a total memory of about 16 Kbyte. This memory capacity depends on its use and how far you are as optimize the PLC memory space you have, which means that also depends on how much the location of the control programs necessary to control certain plant. Control program for the drainage of fuel in a gas turbine locations would require more memory than the control programs for mechanical robots move round the car body on the installer automotive industry. An additional memory modules can also be given to the main system memory when the need is increasing.
Module Software Program
PLC recognize various kinds of software, including the State Language, SFC, and even C. The most popular use is RLL (Relay Ladder Logic). All of these programming languages are based on a sequential process that occurs in the plant (controlled system). All the instructions in the program will be executed by the CPU module, and the writing of programs that can be done on the state of on-line or off line. So the PLC can control the program writable when he controlled without disturbing the process control is being done. Execution of the software will not affect the operation I / O is in progress.
Module I / O
Module I / O is an input module and output module in charge of the PLC to manage the relationship of external or peripheral devices that can include a host computer, switches, motor units, and various source signals contained in the plant.

Input module
Input module functions to receive signals from sensors peripheral units, and provides signal settings, termination, isolation, and input signal condition indicator. The signals from peripheral devices will be scanned and it will be communicated through the interface module in the PLC.

Several types of input modules include:

- DC input voltage (110, 220, 14, 24, 48, 15-30V) or current C (4-20mA).
- Voltage AC ((110, 240, 24, 48V) or AC current (4-20mA).
- TTL Input (3-15V).
- Input Analog (12 bit).
- Enter the word (16-bit/paralel).
- Input thermocouple.
- Resistance temperature detector (RTD).
- High current relay.
- Low current relay.
- Input latching (24VDC/110VAC).
- Input isolated (24VDC/85-132VAC).
- Input intelligent (containing microprocessors).
- Input positioning (positioning).
- Enter the PID (proportional, derivative, and integral).
- Pulsa high speed.
- Etc..

Module output
The output module activates a variety of devices such as hydraulic actuators, pneumatic, solenoid, starter motor, and display the status of peripheral points are connected in the system. Other output module functions include conditioning, termination and also isolating the signals exist. Activation process is of course done by sending signals to discrete and analog relevant, based on his own character which is a PLC digital devices. Some common output modules currently include:
- Voltage DC (24, 48, 110V) or DC current (4-20mA
- Voltage AC (110, 240V) or AC current (4-20mA).
- Output analog (12-bit).
- Output word (16-bit/paralel)
- Exodus smart.
- Output ASCII.
- Dual communication port.

With the module on the PLC is working to control a variety of plant that we have. Considering the signals are handled varied and requires the processing of information at once, then the system we have certainly had the support device capable of processing in real time and is multi-tasking,. You imagine that in a power generation unit, for example, the PLC you have to work 24 hours to measure the temperature of waste and speed turbine, and then adjusts the valve opening determines the flow of fuel based on temperature information on waste and speed up., In order to get round a generator, wanted! At the same time the turbine lubrication system and alarm system should work well both under the control of the PLC! An operating system tools and reliable data communications course we should use. Cabling technology, the use of fiber optics-based operating systems and real-time multi-tasking kind of Unix, and adequate facilities for the expansion of computer networks is a common thing in the current installation of the PLC

READ MORE - Utilization of Programmable Logic Controller in World Industry

Radio transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing

A transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing. If no circuitry is common between transmit and receive functions, the device is a transmitter-receiver. The term originated in the early 1920s. Technically, transceivers must combine a significant amount of the transmitter and receiver handling circuitry. Similar devices include transponders, transverters, and repeaters.

In radio terminology, a transceiver means a unit which contains both a receiver and a transmitter. It was quite common to have these units separated. Ham radio operators can build their own equipment and it is always easier to design and build a simple unit having one of the functions, transmitting or receiving. Almost every modern amateur radio equipment is now a transceiver but there is an active market for pure radio receivers, mainly for Shortwave listening operators. An example of a transceiver would be a walkie-talkie, or a CB radio.

A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.

Generally in communication and information processing, a transmitter is any object (source) which sends information to an observer (receiver). When used in this more general sense, vocal chords may also be considered an example of a transmitter.

In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply, an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF). The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast. Sometimes a device (for example, a cell phone) contains both a transmitter and a radio receiver, with the combined unit referred to as a transceiver. In amateur radio, a transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic gear or a subset of a transceiver, and often referred to using an abbreviated form; "XMTR". In most parts of the world, use of transmitters is strictly controlled by laws since the potential for dangerous interference (for example to emergency communications) is considerable. In consumer electronics, a common device is a Personal FM transmitter, a very low power transmitter generally designed to take a simple audio source like an iPod, CD player, etc. and transmit it a few feet to a standard FM radio receiver. Most personal FM transmitters In the USA fall under Part 15 of the FCC regulations to avoid any user licensing requirements.

In industrial process control, a "transmitter" is any device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal to be received, usually sent via wires, by some display or control device located a distance away. Typically in process control applications the "transmitter" will output an analog 4-20 mA current loop or digital protocol to represent a measured variable within a range. For example, a pressure transmitter might use 4 mA as a representation for 50 psig of pressure and 20 mA as 1000 psig of pressure and any value in between proportionately ranged between 50 and 1000 psig. (A 0-4 mA signal indicates a system error.) Older technology transmitters used pneumatic pressure typically ranged between 3 to 15 psig (20 to 100 kPa) to represent a process variable.

A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally converts through demodulation and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values, navigational positions, etc.

Types of radio receivers

Various types of radio receivers may include:

• Consumer audio and high fidelity audio receivers and AV receivers used by home stereo listeners and audio and home theatre system enthusiasts.
• Communications receivers, used as a component of a radio communication link, characterized by high stability and reliability of performance.
• Simple crystal radio receivers (also known as a crystal set) which operate using the power received from radio waves.
• Satellite television receivers, used to receive television programming from communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
• Specialized-use receivers such as telemetry receivers that allow the remote measurement and reporting of information.
• Measuring receivers (also: measurement receivers) are calibrated laboratory-grade devices that are used to measure the signal strength of broadcasting stations, the electromagnetic interference radiation emitted by electrical products, as well as to calibrate RF attenuators and signal generators.
• Scanners are specialized receivers that can automatically scan two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when they find a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases. They are mainly used for monitoring VHF and UHF radio systems.
  

In telecommunication, the term transponder (short-for Transmitter-responder and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) has the following meanings:

• An automatic device that receives, amplifies, and retransmits a signal on a different frequency (see also broadcast translator).
• An automatic device that transmits a predetermined message in response to a predefined received signal.
• A receiver-transmitter that will generate a reply signal upon proper electronic interrogation.
  

A transverter is a radio frequency device that consists of an upconverter and a downconverter in one unit. Transverters are used in conjunction with transceivers to change the range of frequencies over which the transceiver can communicate.


Radio Data Transmitter - 868MHz
New wireless data transmitter for transferring large amounts of data wirelessly up to 300m. This compact easy to use unit connects directly to most microcontrollers with a standard SPI interface. FSK transmission with a PLL based tuner ensure reliable and accurate data transfer, with data transfer rates of up to 155K bps. Automatic antenna tuning and low power operation make this unit ideal for a wide range of applications.

Features
• Frequency - 868MHz
• FSK Transmission
• PLL Based
• Operating Voltage - 2.2 - 5.4 Vdc
• High Data Rate - Up to 115.2K bps
• Range - Up to 300m
• Works with most Microcontrollers, standard SPI Interface
• Dimensions: Length - 18mm, Width - 14mm , Height - 9mm (Including Pins)

A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater. With digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier. Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio and automatic transmission identification service ATIS. Non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per transponder. This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole transponder, or using landlines to send it to an earth station for multiplexing with other stations.

Remote Communications Outlets (RCO) are remote aviation band radio tranceivers, established to extend to communication capabilities of Flight Information Centres (FIC) and Flight Service Stations (FSS).

Pilots can find RCO frequencies in charts or publications such as the Airport/Facility Directory or Canada Flight Supplement. The RCO is used to make a radio call to the outlet as if the pilot were making the call directly to the FSS or FIC. The outlet will relay the call (and the briefer's response) automatically. RCOs are sometimes confused with RTRs, or remote transmitter/receivers. In fact, the difference between the two is subtle. While RCOs serve flight service stations, RTRs serve terminal air traffic control facilities.

RCOs and RTRs may be UHF or VHF and are divided into a variety of classes determined by the number of transmitters or receivers. Classes A through G are used mainly for air/ ground communications. Class O facilities were created specifically to provide ground-to-ground communication between air traffic controllers and pilots located at satellite airports. The idea was to create a way for pilots to receive en-route clearances or departure authorizations and cancel IFR flight plans. Class O RTRs also were intended to allow pilots flying below the coverage of the primary air/ground frequency to continue to receive advisories from air traffic control. Class O facilities are nonprotected outlets and are subject to prolonged outages which may go undetected and unreported.

Canada also uses a special variant called the Dial-up Remote Communications Outlet (DRCO). DRCOs connect to an FIC or FSS over a phone line, and pilots initiate the connection by keying their microphones in a prescribed pattern.

READ MORE - Radio transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

In order to create a radio station works well and radiates with a strong beam in accordance with the transmit power is owned radio, a user is required to be able to find out how to install, use and maintenance of all radio station equipment. If we look at many radio stations have communications equipment will suffice but transmit power and reception power is relatively weak because much of the equipment does not work properly and the maximum. Equipment enabled the radio station with an improper way, not only made transmit power and reception power becomes weak but also can make the life of some equipment or components to be brief. Will be discussed here about all the equipment of a communication station in order to help users of communication stations, especially the members of the RAPI, in order to use, using and maintaining all radio station equipment properly. There are several tools that should be understood how it works, at least know a little about the equipment to be able to communicate well and smoothly. Such equipment include: Radio Tranceiver Tranceiver comes from two syllables, namely: Radio Transmitter Transmitter means, and that means Receiver Radio Receiver. Radio Transceiver can be concluded is an aircraft that serves as a Radio Transmitter and Receiver Radio. Between the transmitter with the receiver to work interchangeably. At the time of radiated / transmit we can not monitor / hear because the receiver does not work. And vice versa, at the monitors when we can not radiate because at that time radio transmitter was not working. This is because the frequency transmitter with a receiver is always the same (except frequency Repeatter). That's necessary to talk / transmit in turn to avoid transmitt / useless conversation what if the two stations are both radiating / spoke on the same frequency. If this happens then both stations will not be able to hear / monitor talking, which would result in communications not connect. Transmit power / strength emitted from a radio transceiver depending on Put Out Power (watts) of the transmitter. In this section there are components that are referred to as the Final. The receptivity of each Radio Tranceiver generally gives a chance to have a standard size, although there are some Suit Radio with RF Gain to adjust the power of acceptance, but the maximum would be equal to other radio capabilities. RF Gain is only to reduce the power of acceptance if it is needed, usually this is often used for tracking signals (Huntting Fox) or when receiving disturbed by splatter. Radio Transceiver that is often used in the Base Station / Station Stay termed RIG. RIG plane has an antenna and a separate Power Supply of Radio and require connexion cable between the antenna and power supply to the radio. The voltage required for aircraft RIG is 13.8 volts DC with a +15% tolerance. This current source must be true - do not really notice until the voltage into the aircraft exceeds the provisions of RIG. Besides the installation of the poles + and - not to reverse, although only a few moments can make this rig damaged radio. This current source cable must have a strong measure in accordance with the current (ampere) which will pass through, because if the cable size is too small will make the heat especially in times of need transmit stronger currents, which would have resulted in part of this rig radio transmitter can not work maximum or a transmit power (watts) to be reduced, though did not buzz when transmits. Then that is often overlooked is the wiring at the terminal of this current source on the Power Supply / Battery is often not attached / locked firmly. If the terminal is not locked wire there will be strong due to the occurrence of hot sparks, although not visible because of these sparks may be very small. One more type of radio transceiver that much in use is the type of HT (Handy Transceiver) or Handheld Transceiver. HT is widely used in the field because it can carry because of the current source and the antenna is attached battery together with the radio. While using HT are some things that need to note order to function properly. Usually this is necessary if the communication opponent far enough or are difficult to reach. To keep in mind that the antenna is installed on the HT is the type of antenna Omnidirectional antenna that sends and receives from all directions. Therefore when using this antenna position should be in a position to vertical ground / earth, especially if we do not know where the communication opponent's position. If we know the direction opposite the position of trying to communicate our bodies do not hinder that direction. To find a good position can be based on radio reception that we use, in principle, if the position can receive a fine then that position will also be good to radiate. POWER SUPPLY The power supply voltage source to a radio transceiver can be either dry Batterty (batterry stone), Battery wet (battery) or Power Supply. Battery dry (battery stone) has a voltage 1.5 volts DC, for battery or Battery NiCad rechargeable (cas) has a voltage 1.2 volts DC. Batterywet (batteries) has a voltage of 12 volts DC. Power Supply specifically for that function to change the voltage 220/110 volts AC into DC current-voltage normally from 0 to 15 volts DC, widely used in fixed stations / base station. One of the advantages of this Power Supply Batterry compared with wet (battery) is able to remove the voltage to 13.8 volts DC, while the wet Batterry (battery) 12 Volt DC only. And this voltage source will affect the amount of transmit power (watts) of the Aircraft Transceiver. The higher the voltage of the Power Source, then the greater the transmit power (watts) to be issued by the Aircraft Radio Transceiver, but not exceed the limits maximum.CABLE TRANSMISSION ANTENNA The antenna cable is a transmission line between the Aircraft Radio Transceiver with antenna, which has a double function: for transmission and reception of broadcast transmissions. Very influential once the beam / transmit when using low quality cables. Transmit power issued by the Radio Transceiver will be reduced after going through this cable. Because it u need to use good quality cablenot to affect or reduce the transmit power from the radio transceiver after this cable into the antenna. Prior to this cable is used to do a test to see if the cable has lossis / loss of power if dipergunaka for Radio Tranceiver. This test can be done by using or SWR Power Meter and Dummy Load Meter and the radio transceiver itself. There are several ways to do the test antenna, among others: First of all prepare the Radio Tranceiver with power supply / power supply, connect the Power Meter / SWR Meter to Radio Tranceiver using jumper cables, in part at the SWR meter Conector leading Dummy Load paired antennae. Turn on the Radio Tranceiver they will be at the frequency where the usual approach is used. Transmitt do while watching Power Meter and note how many watts of power that came out during transmit tsb.Kemudian open jumper cables and replace it with a cable that will be used. Before doing transmitt to view transmit power, trim the cable so that no rolling / crossing. After trimming kebel do transmit it as previously said, clayey Power Meter. If the transmit power (watts) issued by the same means had the cable does not have lossis / losses and of course can be used immediately. However, if the transmit power (watts) issued less this means the cable power losses / lossis. To cope with this need to be cutting the cable, the cable was cut along + 2cm then paired trnsmitt back and do as before, looking at changes in transmit power (watts). Repeat several times until the transmit power of the approach as noted earlier. Cable used to KRAP, both 11 meters and 2 meters is a cable that has a 50 ohm inpedance. Lots of antenna type which has a 50 ohm inpedance this, among other things that we often use the RG 58. This type of cable typically has a maximum power transmitter capable of flowing up to 160 watts. RG 8 and type larger, has a maximum power to 800 watts. ANTENNA As transmission antenna cable also has a dual function is to receive and to signals emanating from a radio station. Basically, the antenna comprises 2 (two) types namely: a. That Omnidirectional antenna with radiance and acceptance of, and in all directions. In general, the antenna is mounted vertically to the ground / earth. Serperti: Ring-O/Ground Plane, Slim Jim (duck), Mobile Antenna, Antenna HT standard, etc.. b. Directional, which has a beam antenna and receiving only one direction pad. This antenna can be mounted vertically or horizontally posisis, for 2 yards on umnya fitted with a vertical position and at 11 meters with a horizontal position. A directional antenna / directional consists of: a. Projectors / Driven that serve as an antenna, b. Reflectors which act as reflectors, and c. Director who serves as director. such as: Yagi antenna, antenna Five Zulu, etc.. Rotator An antenna was always directed at the needs on the location of the communication opponent in order to radiate and receive very well. To make it easier for an operator to direct the antenna, you can use an electric motor mounted on the antenna pole and can be controlled from the operator table. Motor / Drive is called the "Rotator". EXTRA MIC In an aircraft equipped with RIG microfon always attached to a spiral cable and connected to the aircraft with a conecto RIG, which is an integral part of a plane Rig. Another case with a radio HT, directly mounted on microfonnya box / HT's own body, because the HT is designed for use in the field. When HT is used in fixed station / base station or mobile stations would be inconvenient to radiate / transmitt, because they have to grasp the HT. To that required a microfon exstra (additional microfon) is known by the term "extra mic". SWR & POWER METER To measure the power loss (losses) that occur on transmission lines and antennas on the antenna itself. In SWR meter there is usually also a function power meter to measure the transmit power of a transmitter. Coax SWITC (SWITC ANTENNA) When using several antennas to one radio transceiver or one antenna with several radio, to be used interchangeably without dismantling the plug connector cable needed to transfer SWITC Coax, better known by the term "Switc antenna". Dummy Load A transmitter / radio transceiver is not burdened with an antenna radiating without due will could damage the amplifier end (final). Therefore, if the will radiate to conduct tests without an antenna, then the "Dummy Load" can be used as a replacement antenna artificial load. GROUND Ground worked best to voltage  against electric shock, and to reduce RFI interference (splatter) and transmit power and strengthen the power of acceptance. During Guglielmo Marconi was regarded as the inventor of radio. When in fact many people play a role in its development. The early 1800s independently Joseph Henry, professor of Pinceton University, and the English physicist Michael Faraday developed the theory of induction. Their experiment proves electromagnetic current in a wire can cause the current in another wire rod, although the two are not related. In 1864 another English physicist James Maxwell Clerik, theorized that an electric current creates a magnetic field and that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was later verified by experiments conducted German physicist Heinrich Hertz, in 1880. Only later Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, managed to send a radio communication signals with electromagnetic waves as far as ± 1.5 km. In 1901, the signal from the Marconi radio devices capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada. But the Canadian-born physicist Reginald A. Fessenden was the first to transmit the human voice via radio when in 1906, he was talking over the radio from Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA, to the ships in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast. Since then, the radio continues to grow more perfect, is supported by findings in stages. In the early twentieth century, scientists have developed a vacuum tube that can track and strengthen the U.S. signal radio. inventor  Forest audion patent trioda or her year 1907, which later became an important element in the radio signal reception. The ability of this revenue improved again with the findings Edwin H. Armstrong, who created the sirukit superheterodyne 1918. Circuit which is still used today has a high capability of Armstrong's selection is also a FM broadcasting system developed in 1933. Radio works by changing the voice or other signals into electromagnetic waves or radio waves. These waves move through air and space, through solid objects. Radio waves move with the size of the speed of light, 299.792 km / sec. When the signal received by the receiver, he immediately changed the original form of sound. Important part in radio was the antenna, tuner, amplifier, and loudspeakers. Antennas to capture radio waves, tuner function for the wave with the figures given frequency. While amplifier strengthens the signal of the selected programs tuner. On the radio, a transistor amplifier and IC (Integrated Circuit). While the radio from the year before that use vacuum tabeung. Last estuary is a speaker that will change the electrical signals into the original sound. Although the pilot was first broadcast done in 1910, the actual raido broadcasts in many countries began only in 1920. When TV ruled the world, many people think, live radio age counting days. It turned out that the technology allows the production of portable radios - even just for the match - a practical portable. Another attraction, not just an interactive quiz program that directly involves the audience, as well as the quality the better modulation with the FM broadcast to broadcast the music so popular. Boster FM Radio Receiver Here is a simple circuit of an FM booster that can be used to listen to programs from distant FM stations Clearly. This amplifier will pull in all distant FM stations Clearly. The circuit is configured as a common-emitter tuned RF pre-amplifier wired around VHF / UHF transistor Q1. 2SC2570. (Only C2570 is annotated on the transistor body.) Assemble the circuit on a good-quality PCB (preferably, glass-epoxy). Adjust the input / output trimmers (VC1/VC2) for maximum gain. All capacitors are ceramic and 50V is the standard but the 25V types work fine too. Trimmer capacitors TR1 and TR2 (22pF) are adjusted for maximum gain. Input coil L1 consists of 4 turns of enamelled copper wire 20SWG over a 5mm diameter former. It is tapped at the first turn from the ground lead side. Coil L2 is similar to L1, but has only three turns. Pin configuration is shown in the diagram. Component List: R1 = 27K R2 = 270 ohms R3 = 1K TR1, TR2 = 22pF, Trimmer cap (15-40pF) C1, C2 = 5.6pF C3 = 0.001uF (1nF), ceramic C4, C5 = 10pF, ceramic C6 = 0.1uF (100nF), ceramic Q1 = 2SC2498, 2SC2570, 2N5179, SK9139, or NTE10. NPN VHF / UHF transistor L1 = 4 turns of 20SWG magnet wire, 5mm diameter. (so-called 3T +1) L2 = 3 turns of 20SWG magnet wire, 5mm diameter.

READ MORE - STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line

SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line. This is an item of radio equipment used to check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line.

The VSWR meter should be connected in the line as close as possible to the antenna. This is because all practical transmission lines have a certain amount of loss, causing the reflected power to be attenuated as it travels back along the cable, and producing an artificially low VSWR reading on the meter. If the meter is installed close to the antenna, then this problem is minimized.

Referring to the above diagram, the transmitter (TX) and antenna (ANT) terminals are connected via an internal transmission line. This main line is electromagnetically coupled to two smaller sense lines which are connected to resistors at one end, and diode rectifiers at the other. The resistors are chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the sense lines. One sense line senses the forward wave (connected to FWD), and the other the reflected wave (connected to REV). The diodes convert these to FWD and REV DC voltages respectively, the ratio of which is used to determine the VSWR. In a passive meter, this is indicated on a non-linear meter scale.

To calculate the VSWR, first calculate the reflection coefficient:


Note that an SWR meter does not measure the actual impedance of a load (ie the resistance and reactance), but only the mismatch ratio. To measure the actual impedance, an antenna analyzer or other similar RF measuring device is required. Note also that for accurate readings, the SWR meter must be matched to the line impedance, ie 50 or 75 ohms as applicable. To accommodate both impedances, some SWR meters have switches on the rear, to select the appropriate load resistance for the sense lines.

If a mismatch exists between the transmission line and load, the line will act as an impedance transformer. In this case, the impedance seen at the input to the line will depend on its electrical length, although (for a lossless line) the VSWR will be the same at any point along the line. Mismatched transmission lines are often used for impedance transformation, especially at UHF and microwave frequencies where their dimensions can be very short. For more information on this handy technique, see smith chart.

When not actually measuring VSWR, it is best to remove the more usual type of passive SWR meter from the line. This is because the internal diodes of such meters can generate harmonics when transmitting, and intermodulation products when receiving. Because active SWR meters do not usually suffer from this effect, they can normally be left in without causing such problems.

In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a partial standing wave at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node (minimum), in an electrical transmission line.

The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes a maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2 times greater than the minimum standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR.

Practical implications of SWR

The most common case for measuring and examining SWR is when installing and tuning transmitting antennas. When a transmitter is connected to an antenna by a feed line, the impedance of the antenna and feed line must match exactly for maximum energy transfer from the feed line to the antenna to be possible. The impedance of the antenna varies based on many factors including: the antenna's natural resonance at the frequency being transmitted, the antenna's height above the ground, and the size of the conductors used to construct the antenna.

When an antenna and feedline do not have matching impedances, some of the electrical energy cannot be transferred from the feedline to the antenna. Energy not transferred to the antenna is reflected back towards the transmitter. It is the interaction of these reflected waves with forward waves which causes standing wave patterns. Reflected power has three main implications in radio transmitters: Radio Frequency (RF) energy losses increase, distortion on transmitter due to reflected power from load and damage to the transmitter can occur.

Matching the impedance of the antenna to the impedance of the feed line is typically done using an antenna tuner. The tuner can be installed between the transmitter and the feed line, or between the feed line and the antenna. Both installation methods will allow the transmitter to operate at a low SWR, however if the tuner is installed at the transmitter, the feed line between the tuner and the antenna will still operate with a high SWR, causing additional RF energy to be lost through the feedline.

Many amateur radio operators believe any impedance mismatch is a serious matter. However, this is not the case. Assuming the mismatch is within the operating limits of the transmitter, the radio operator needs only be concerned with the power loss in the transmission line. Power loss will increase as the SWR increases, however the increases are often less than many radio amateurs might assume. For example, a dipole antenna tuned to operate at 3.75MHz—the center of the 80 meter amateur radio band—will exhibit an SWR of about 6:1 at the edges of the band. However, if the antenna is fed with 250 feet of RG-8A coax, the loss due to standing waves is only 2.2dB. Feed line loss typically increases with frequency, so VHF and above antennas must be matched closely to the feedline. The same 6:1 mismatch to 250 feet of RG-8A coax would incur 10.8dB of loss at 146MHz.

A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power transmission. Types of transmission line include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, striplines, optical fibers, electric power lines, and waveguides.

READ MORE - SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission line

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

STATION IN ORDER TO RECEIVE THE emanating AND MAXIMUM

In order to create a radio station works well and radiates with a strong beam in accordance with the transmit power is owned radio, a user is required to be able to find out how to install, use and maintenance of all radio station equipment.

If we look at many radio stations have communications equipment will suffice but transmit power and reception power is relatively weak because much of the equipment does not work properly and the maximum.

Equipment enabled the radio station with an improper way, not only made transmit power and reception power becomes weak but also can make the life of some equipment or components to be brief.

Will be discussed here about all the equipment of a communication station in order to help users of communication stations, especially the members of the RAPI, in order to use, using and maintaining all radio station equipment properly.

There are several tools that should be understood how it works, at least know a little about the equipment to be able to communicate well and smoothly. Such equipment include:

Radio Tranceiver
Tranceiver comes from two syllables, namely: Radio Transmitter Tranmitter means, and that means Receiver Radio Receiver. Radio Transceiver can be concluded is an aircraft that serves as a Radio Transmitter and Receiver Radio.

Between the transmitter with the receiver to work interchangeably. At the time of radiated / transmit we can not monitor / hear because the receiver does not work. And vice versa, at the monitors when we can not radiate because at that time radio transmitter was not working. This is because the frequency transmitter with a receiver is always the same (except frequency Repeatter). That's necessary to talk / transmit in turn to avoid transmitt / useless conversation what if the two stations are both radiating / berbicarapada the same frequency. If this happens then both stations will not be able to hear / monitor talking, which would result in communications not connect.

Transmit power / strength emitted from a radio transceiver depending on Put Out Power (watts) of the transmitter. In this section there are components that are referred to as the Final.

The receptivity of each Radio Tranceiver generally gives a chance to have a standard size, although there are some Stelan Radio with RF Gain to adjust the power of acceptance, but the maximum would be equal to other radio capabilities. RF Gain is only to reduce the power of acceptance if it is needed, usually this is often used for tracking signals (Huntting Fox) or when receiving disturbed by splatter.

Radio Transceiver that is often used in the Base Station / Station Stay termed RIG. RIG plane has an antenna and a separate Power Supply of Radio and require penghungan cable between the antenna and power supply to the radio. The voltage required for aircraft RIG is 13.8 volts DC with a +15% tolerance. This current source must be true - do not really notice until the voltage into the aircraft exceeds the provisions of RIG. Besides the installation of the poles + and - not to reverse, although only a few moments can make this rig damaged radio. This current source cable must have a strong measure in accordance with the current (ampere) which will pass through, because if the cable size is too small will make the heat especially in times of need transmit stronger currents, which would have resulted in part of this rig radio transmitter can not work maximum or a transmit power (watts) to be reduced, though did not buzz when transmits.

Then that is often overlooked is the wiring at the terminal of this current source on the Power Supply / Battery is often not attached / locked firmly. If the terminal is not locked wire there will be strong due to the occurrence of hot sparks, although not visible because of these sparks may be very small.

One more type of radio transceiver that much in use is the type of HT (Handy Transceiver) or Handheld Transceiver. HT is widely used in the field because it can carry because of the current source and the antenna is attached batterry together with the radio. While using HT are some things that need to diperhatikah order to function properly. Usually this is necessary if the communication opponent far enough or are difficult to reach. To keep in mind that the antenna is installed on the HT is the type of antenna Omnidirectional antenna that sends and receives from all directions. Therefore when using this antenna position should be in a position to vetikal ground / earth, especially if we do not know where the communication opponent's position. If we know the direction opposite the position of trying to communicate our bodies do not hinder that direction. To find a good position can be based on radio reception that we use, in principle, if the position can receive a fine then that position will also be good to radiate.

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply voltage source to a radio transceiver can be either dry Batterty (batterry stone), Batterry wet (battery) or Power Supply.

Batterry dry (batterry stone) has a voltage 1.5 volts DC, for batterrry or Batterrry NiCad rechargeable (cas) has a voltage 1.2 volts DC. Batterry wet (batteries) has a voltage of 12 volts DC.

Power Supply specifically for that function to change the voltage 220/110 volts AC into DC current-voltage normally from 0 to 15 volts DC, widely used in fixed stations / base station. One of the advantages of this Power Supply Batterry compared with wet (battery) is able to remove the voltage to 13.8 volts DC, while the wet Batterry (battery) 12 Volt DC only. And this voltage source will affect the amount of transmit power (watts) of the Aircraft Transceiver. The higher the voltage of the Power Source, then the greater the transmit power (watts) to be issued by the Aircraft Radio Transceiver, but not exceed the limits maksimium.

CABLE TRANSMISSION ANTENNA
The antenna cable is a transmission line between the Aircraft Radio Transceiver with antenna, which has a double function: for transmission and reception of broadcast transmissions. Very influential once the beam / transmit when using low quality cables. Transmit power issued by the Radio Transceiver will be reduced after going through this cable. Because it u need to use good quality kebel not to affect or reduce the transmit power from the radio transceiver after this cable into the antenna.

Prior to this cable is used to do a test to see if the cable has lossis / loss of power if dipergunaka for Radio Tranceiver. This test can be done by using or SWR Power Meter and Dummy Load Meter and the radio transceiver itself.

There are several ways to do the test antenna, among others:
First of all prepare the Radio Tranceiver with power supply / power supply, connect the Power Meter / SWR Meter to Radio Tranceiver using jumper cables, in part at the SWR meter Conector leading Dummy Load paired antennae. Turn on the Radio Tranceiver they will be at the frequency where the usual approach is used. Transmitt do while watching Power Meter and note how many watts of power that came out during transmit tsb.Kemudian open jumper cables and replace it with a cable that will be used. Before doing transmitt to view transmit power, trim the cable so that no rolling / crossing. After trimming kebel do transmit it as previously said, clayey Power Meter. If the transmit power (watts) issued by the same means had the cable does not have lossis / losses and of course can be used immediately. However, if the transmit power (watts) issued less this means the cable power losses / lossis. To cope with this need to be cutting the cable, the cable was cut along + 2cm then paired trnsmitt back and do as before, looking at changes in transmit power (watts). Repeat several times until the transmit power of the approach as noted earlier.

Cable used to KRAP, both 11 meters and 2 meters is a cable that has a 50 ohm inpedance. Lots of antenna type which has a 50 ohm inpedance this, among other things that we often use the RG 58. This type of cable typically has a maximum power transmitter capable of flowing up to 160 watts. RG 8 and type larger, has a maximum power to 800 watts.

ANTENNA
As transmission antenna cable also has a dual function is to receive and to signals emanating from a radio station.
Basically, the antenna comprises 2 (two) types namely:

a. Omnidirectional
That antenna is a radiance and acceptance of, and in all directions.
In general, the antenna is mounted vertically to the ground / earth.
Like : Ring-O/Ground Plane, Slim Jim (duck), Mobile Antenna, Antenna HT standard,
etc..

b. Directional
Antenna which has beam and receiving only one direction pad.
This antenna can be mounted vertically or horizontally, to 2 meters in
umnya fitted with a vertical position and at 11 meters with a horizontal position.

A directional antenna / directional consists of:
a. Projectors / Driven that serve as an antenna,
b. Reflectors which act as reflectors, and
c. Director who serves as director.
such as: Yagi antenna, antenna Five Zulu, etc..
ba c --------------------------- --------------------- -------
Rotator

An antenna was always directed at the needs on the location of the communication opponent in order to radiate and receive very well. To make it easier for an operator to direct the antenna, you can use an electric motor mounted on the antenna pole and can be controlled from the operator table. Motor / Drive is called the "Rotator".

EXTRA MIC
In an aircraft equipped with RIG microfon always attached to a spiral cable and connected to the aircraft with a conecto RIG, which is an integral part of a plane Rig. Another case with a radio HT, directly mounted on microfonnya box / HT's own body, because the HT is designed for use in the field. When HT is used in fixed station / base station or mobile stations would be inconvenient to radiate / transmitt, because they have to grasp the HT. To that required a microfon exstra (additional microfon) is known by the term "extra mic".

SWR & POWER METER
To measure the power loss (losses) that occur on transmission lines and antennas on the antenna itself. In SWR meter there is usually also a function power meter to measure the transmit power of a transmitter.

Coax SWITC (SWITC ANTENNA)
When using several antennas to one radio transceiver or a fruit
antennas with a few fruit Radio, to be used interchangeably without dismantling the plug connector cable needed to transfer SWITC Coax, better known by the term "Switc antenna".

Dummy Load
A transmitter / radio transceiver is not burdened with an antenna radiating without due will
could damage the amplifier end (final). Therefore, if the will radiate to conduct tests without an antenna, then the "Dummy Load" can be used as a replacement antenna artificial load.

GROUND
Ground worked best to voltage security against electric shock, and to reduce RFI interference (splatter) and transmit power and strengthen the power of acceptance.

During Guglielmo Marconi was regarded as the inventor of radio. When in fact many people play a role in its development. The early 1800s independently Joseph Henry, professor of Pinceton University, and the English physicist Michael Faraday developed the theory of induction. Their experiment proves electromagnetic current in a wire can cause the current in another wire rod, although the two are not related. In 1864 another English physicist James Maxwell Clerik, theorized that an electric current creates a magnetic field and that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was later verified by experiments conducted German physicist Heinrich Hertz, in 1880.

Only later Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, managed to send a radio communication signals with electromagnetic waves as far as ± 1.5 km. In 1901, the signal from the Marconi radio devices capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada.

But the Canadian-born physicist Reginald A. Fessenden was the first to transmit the human voice via radio when in 1906, he was talking over the radio from Brant Rock, Massachusetts, USA, to the ships in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast. Since then, the radio continues to grow more perfect, is supported by findings in stages.

In the early twentieth century, scientists have developed a vacuum tube that can track and strengthen the U.S. signal radio.Penemu Lee De Forest audion patent trioda or her year 1907, which later became an important element in the radio signal reception. The ability of this revenue improved again with the findings Edwin H. Armstrong, who created the circuit superheterodyne 1918. Circuit which is still used today has a high capability of Armstrong's selection is also a FM broadcasting system developed in 1933.

Radio works by changing the voice or other signals into electromagnetic waves or radio waves. These waves move through air and space, through solid objects. Radio waves move with the size of the speed of light, 299.792 km / sec. When the signal received by the receiver, he immediately changed the original form of sound.

Important part in radio was the antenna, tuner, amplifier, and loudspeakers. Antennas to capture radio waves, tuner function for the wave with the figures given frequency. While amplifier strengthens the signal of the selected programs tuner. On the radio, a transistor amplifier and IC (Integrated Circuit). While the radio from the year before that use vacuum tabeung. Last estuary is a speaker that will change the electrical signals into the original sound.
Although the pilot was first broadcast done in 1910, the actual radio broadcasts in many countries began only in 1920. When TV ruled the world, many people think, live radio age counting days. It turned out that the technology allows the production of portable radios - even just for the match - a practical portable. Another attraction, not just an interactive quiz program that directly involves the audience, as well as the quality the better modulation with the FM broadcast to broadcast the music so popular.

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